The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 21. The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. this is brief study on skeletal system ,that i prepared for my academic purpose .
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The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
It is skeletal system of human body in detail description. In this ppt gives axial skeleton of body cranium thoracic cage and Vertibral coloumn . i gave structure and function of the bone , parts of axial skeleton with diagram
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
2. Bones
◼Bone tissue is a type of dense connective
tissue.
◼Bones support and protect the various
organs of the body, produce red and white
blood cells, store minerals and also enable
mobility as well as support for the body.
3. Composition
◼Water (25%)
• Organic constituents including osteoid (the
carbon containing part of the matrix) and
bone cells (25%)
• Inorganic constituents mainly calcium
phosphate(50%).
4. Function of the Skeletal System
• Support- framework that supports body
and its soft organs
• Protection- for delicate organs, heart,
lungs, brain
• Movement- bones act as levers for
muscles
• Mineral storage- calcium & phosphate
• Blood cell formation- hematopoiesis
5. • Long Bones- Femur, humerus, ulna,
radius, tibia, fibula
• Short Bones- carpals, tarsals
• Flat Bones- rib, scapula, sternum
• Irregular Bones- vertebrae, some
facial bones
• Sesamoid- patella
Types of Bones
11. skeleton
✔Axial skeleton supports and protects
organs of head, neck and trunk
✔Appendicular skeleton- bones of
limbs and bones that anchor them to
the axial skeleton
✔Articulation- where joints are formed
12. The skull - Facial and cranial bones
8 sutured bones in cranium
Facial bones: 13 sutured bones, 1 mandible
The skull
14. 22 bones in skull
6 in middle ears
1 hyoid bone
26 in vertebral column
25 in thoracic cage
4 in pectoral girdle
60 in upper limbs
60 in lower limbs
2 in pelvic girdle
Total number of bones is
206 bones
15. Skull
◼The skull rests on the upper end of the
vertebral column is divided into two parts:
the cranium and the face.
17. Cranium
◼The cranium is formed by a number of flat
and irregular bones that provide a bony
protection for the brain
◼The periosteum inside the skull bones
consists of the outer layer of dura mater.
◼In the mature skull the joints (sutures)
between the bones are immovable(fibrous).
18. The bones of the cranium are:
◼1 frontal bone
◼2 parietal bones
◼2 temporal bones
◼1 occipital bone
◼1 sphenoid bone
◼1 ethmoid bone.
19. Frontal bone
◼This is the bone of the forehead.
◼The coronal suture joins the frontal and
parietal bones and other fibrous joints are
formed with the sphenoid, zygomatic,
lacrimal, nasal and ethmoid bones
20. Parietal bones
◼These bones form the sides and roof of the
skull
◼They articulate with each other at the sagittal
suture, with the frontal bone at the coronal
suture, with the occipital bone at the
lambdoidal suture and with the temporal
bones at the squamous sutures.
21. Temporal bones
◼These bones lie one on each side of the head
and form immovable joints with the parietal,
occipital, sphenoid and zygomatic bones.
22. Occipital bone
◼This bone forms the back of the head and
part of the base of the skull.
◼The occipital has two articular condyles that
form hinge joints with the first bone of the
vertebral column, the atlas Between the
condyles there is the foramen magnum
25. Sphenoid bone
◼This bone occupies the middle portion of the
base of the skull and it articulates with the
occipital, temporal, parietal and frontal bones
26. Ethmoid bone
◼The ethmoid bone occupies the anterior part
of the base of the skull and helps to form the
orbital cavity, the nasal septum and the
lateral walls of the nasal cavity
27. Facial Bones
• The skeleton of the face is formed by 13
bones.
• 2 zygomatic or cheek bones
• 1 maxilla (originated as 2)
• 2 nasal bones
• 2 lacrimal bones
• 1 vomer
• 2 palatine bones
• 2inferior conchae
• 1 mandible (originated as 2
29. Zygomatic or cheek bones
◼It form the prominences of the cheeks and
part of the floor and lateral walls of the
orbital cavities.
30. Maxilla or upper jaw bone
◼Maxilla or upper jaw bone. This originates as
two bones but fusion takes place before birth
◼The maxilla forms the upper jaw, the anterior
part of the roof of the mouth, the lateral walls
of the nasal cavity and part of the floor of the
orbital cavities
31. Nasal bones
◼These are two small flat bones which form
the greater part of the lateral and superior
surfaces of the bridge of the nose.
32. Lacrimal bones
◼These two small bones are posterior and
lateral to the nasal bones and form part of the
medial walls of the orbital cavities
33. Vomer
◼The vomer is a thin flat bone which extends
upwards from the middle of the hard palate
to form the main part of the nasal septum.
35. Hyoid bone
◼This is an isolated horse-shoe-shaped bone
lying in the soft tissues of the neck just above
the larynx and below the mandible
36. Vertebral column
◼The vertebral column consists of 24 separate
movable, irregular bones, the sacrum (five
fused bones) and the coccyx (four fused
bones).
◼ The 24 separate bones are in three groups: 7
cervical, 12 thoracic and 5 lumbar.
37.
38.
39. Cervical vertebrae
◼The first two cervical vertebrae are atypical.
◼The atlas is the 1st cervical vertebra
◼The axis is the 2nd cervical vertebra. The
body is small and has the upward projecting
odontoid process or dens that articulates
with the first cervical vertebra, the atlas. The
movement at this joint is turning the head
42. Sacrum
◼This consists of five rudimentary vertebrae
fused to form a triangular or wedge-shaped
bone.
◼The upper part, or base, articulates with the
5th lumbar vertebra. On each side it
articulates with the ilium to form a sacroiliac
joint, and at its inferior tip it articulates with
the coccyx.
44. Coccyx
◼This consists of the four terminal vertebrae
fused to form a very small triangular bone,
the broad base of which articulates with the
tip of the sacrum
45. Features of the vertebral column
• Intervertebral discs:
The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are
separated by intervertebral discs, consisting
of an outer rim of fibrocartilage (annulus
fibrosus) and a central core of soft gelatinous
material (nucleus pulposus)
• They have a shock-absorbing function and
the cartilaginous joints they form contribute
to the flexibility of the vertebral column.
47. Sternum or breast bone
• This flat bone can be felt just under the skin in
the middle of the front of the chest.
• The manubrium is the uppermost section and
articulates with the clavicles at the
sternoclavicular joints and with the first two
pairs of ribs.
• The body or middle portion gives attachment to
the ribs.
• The xiphoid process is the tip of the bone-
diaphragm
48. Ribs
◼There are 12 pairs of ribs which form the bony
lateral walls of the thoracic cage and
articulate posteriorly with the thoracic
vertebrae.
◼ The first 10 pairs are attached anteriorly to
the sternum by costal cartilages,
◼The last two pairs (floating ribs) have no
anterior attachment
50. Shoulder girdle and upper limb
• Each shoulder girdle consists of:
• 1 clavicle
• 1 scapula
• Each upper limb consists of the following
bones
• 1 radius 1 ulna
• 8 carpal bones 5 metacarpal bones
• 14 phalanges. 1 humerus
51. Clavicle or collar bone
◼The clavicle is a long bone which has a double
curve
◼It articulates with the manubrium of the
sternum at the sternoclavicular joint and
forms the acromioclavicular joint with the
acromion process of the scapula
52. Scapula or shoulder blade
◼The scapula is a flat triangular-shaped bone,
lying on the posterior chest wall.
◼the glenoid cavity which, with the head of the
humerus, forms the shoulder joint.
53.
54. Humerus
◼This is the bone of the upper arm. The head
articulates with the glenoid cavity of the
scapula
◼The distal end of the bone presents two
surfaces that articulate with the radius and
ulna to form the elbow joint.
55. Ulna and radius
◼These are the two bones of the forearm.
◼The ulna is longer than and medial to the
radius
◼They articulate with the humerus at the
elbow joint
◼the carpal bones at the wrist joint and with
each other at the proximal and distal
radioulnar joints.
56. Carpal or wrist bones
◼There are eight carpal bones arranged in two
rows of four.
◼proximal row: scaphoid, lunate, triquetral,
pisiform
◼ distal row: trapezium, trapezoid, capitate,
hamate.
57.
58. Metacarpal bones or the bones of
the hand
◼These five bones form the palm of the hand.
The proximal ends articulate with the carpal
bones and the distal ends with the phalanges.
59. Phalanges or finger bones
◼There are 14 phalanges, three in each finger
and two in the thumb. They articulate with
the metacarpal bones.
60. Pelvic girdle and lower limb
◼The bones of the pelvic girdle are:
• 2 innominate bones
• 1 sacrum.
61. The bones of the lower limb are:
◼ 1 femur • 7 tarsal bones
◼1 tibia • 5 metatarsal bones
◼1 fibula • 14 phalanges.
◼1 patella
62. Innominate or hip bones
◼Each hip bone consists of three fused bones,
the ilium,ischium and pubis
◼ On its outer surface there is a deep
depression, the acetabulum, which forms the
hip joint with the almost-spherical head of
femur.
63.
64. The pelvis
◼The pelvis is formed by the two innominate
bones which articulate anteriorly at the
symphysis pubis and posteriorly with the
sacrum at the sacroiliac joints.
67. What is joint?
◼Joint is connection between two bones of the
skeleton
◼Joints also called as articulation
◼Arthrology is a study of joints
68. Joints are the weakest part of the skeleton.
Classification
Functional: Amount of movement allowed
1). Synarthroses: Immovable joints
(Fibrous)
2). Amphiarthrosis: Slightly movable joint
(Cartilogenious)
3). Diarthroses: Fully movable joints
(Synovial)
Joints
73. Types of movement and examples (with muscles)
flexion- move lower leg toward upper
extension- straightening the leg
abduction- moving leg away from body
adduction- moving leg toward the body
rotation- around its axis
supination- rotation of arm to palm-up position
pronation- palm down
circumduction- swinging arms in circles
inversion- turning foot so sole is inward
eversion- turning foot so sole is out
74.
75.
76.
77. Figure 8.5a Movements allowed
by synovial joints.
Gliding
(a) Gliding movements at the
wrist
78. Figure 8.6a Special body
movements.
Supination
(radius and
ulna are
parallel)
(a) Pronation (P) and supination
(S)
Pronatio
n
(radius
rotates
over
ulna)
79. Figure 8.6c Special body
movements.
Eversion
Inversion
(c) Inversion and
eversion
80. Ball and Socket Joint
◼The head or ball of one bone articulates with
a socket of another and the shape of the
bones allows for a wide range of movement.
◼Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction,
rotation and circumduction.
◼Examples are the shoulder and hip.
81. Hinge joints
◼These allow the movements of flexion and
extension only.
◼ elbow, knee and ankle etc.,
82. Gliding joints
◼The articular surfaces glide over each other.
◼Sternoclavicular joints, acromioclavicular
joints and joints between the carpal bones
and those between the tarsal bones.
83. Pivot joints
◼ Movement is round one axis (rotation).
◼e.g. the joint between the atlas and the
odontoid process of the axis.
84. Condyloid and saddle joints.
◼Movements take place round two axes,
permitting flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction and circumduction.
◼ e.g. the wrist, temporomandibular,
metacarpophalangeal and metatarsopha-
langeal joints.
