It is skeletal system of human body in detail description. In this ppt gives axial skeleton of body cranium thoracic cage and Vertibral coloumn . i gave structure and function of the bone , parts of axial skeleton with diagram
Osseous system II , is the appendicular skeletal system , it representing about the bone of pectoral girdle , pelvic girdle and upper limbs and lower limbs. structure and function of humerus , radius ulna and structure and function of femur , tibia fibula.
joint is site at which bone are together and creating work .
in that discussed definition . structure and function of joint .
disorder of joint briefly discussed
It is whole study about animal cell . Componant of cell well described with their function . Structure of organals also seen in presentation . Also gives Homeostatic mechanism of body and how to wor it .
Cell divission frieflys described with their phases And types .
Impurity is the undesirable foreign material which may be toxic or non toxic present in the pharmaceutical substance.
Impurity is the substance or the matter which does not form a part of the medicinal or pharmaceutical substance or drugs.
Sources of impurities include
1. Raw materials used in the manufacturer.
2. Process used in the manufacturer.
3. Material of the plant.
4. Inadequate storage.
5. Accidental substitutions/deliberate adulteration with spurious/ useless substance.
6. Manufacturing hazards.
This ppt also explain Effects of impurities in pharmacopoeial substance.
ANATOMY :
It is the study of structure of whole body as well as its
different individual parts and their relationship amongst
each other.
PHYSIOLOGY :
It deals with the function of the body parts, and
their synchronized working to co-ordination of the
whole body
Surface anatomy : It is the study of the external surface of the body and different marking present .
Gross anatomy : It is the macroscopic study gross organ of the body
Systemic anatomy : It deals with the structure study of different system of the body , such as digestive system , nervous system etc.
Regional Anatomy : It is the study of specific region of the body such as thorax . Abdomen , chest , head etc. from anatomy point of view
Developmental anatomy : It is study of structural feature during development of the fertilized egg to adult form .
Cytology : It is the microscopic study of the structural feature of tissues.
Embryology : Initial eight week developmental study
of structure of fertilized egg.
Teratology: Study of congenital malformations.
Radiological anatomy: Study of anatomy using radiological techniques like: X-rays,CT (computed tomography) scans, MRI (medical resonance imaging).
Applied anatomy: It is anatomical knowledge with clinical application, useful for diagnosis and surgical procedures
Cell Physiology : Deals with the study of different functional characteristics of cell and its organelles .
2) System Physiology : study of function of different organ system of body
3) Cardiovascular Physiology : Study of function of heart and blood vessel
4) Renal Physiology : Deals with study of function of Kidney .
MEDICINAL GASES OR INHALANTS IN PHARMACEUTICALSP.N.DESHMUKH
Medicinal gases includes oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.
Each example includes its formula, mol. wt., chemical properties, uses, storage and precaution.
The document provides details on the skeletal system, including:
1) There are 206 bones in the human body that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, providing protection, support, and carrying other body parts. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
2) Bones are composed of organic and inorganic materials and come in long, short, flat, and irregular shapes. They contain bone cells including osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts that form and break down bone tissue.
3) The skeletal system functions to provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, store minerals, and produce blood cells.
Osseous system II , is the appendicular skeletal system , it representing about the bone of pectoral girdle , pelvic girdle and upper limbs and lower limbs. structure and function of humerus , radius ulna and structure and function of femur , tibia fibula.
joint is site at which bone are together and creating work .
in that discussed definition . structure and function of joint .
disorder of joint briefly discussed
It is whole study about animal cell . Componant of cell well described with their function . Structure of organals also seen in presentation . Also gives Homeostatic mechanism of body and how to wor it .
Cell divission frieflys described with their phases And types .
Impurity is the undesirable foreign material which may be toxic or non toxic present in the pharmaceutical substance.
Impurity is the substance or the matter which does not form a part of the medicinal or pharmaceutical substance or drugs.
Sources of impurities include
1. Raw materials used in the manufacturer.
2. Process used in the manufacturer.
3. Material of the plant.
4. Inadequate storage.
5. Accidental substitutions/deliberate adulteration with spurious/ useless substance.
6. Manufacturing hazards.
This ppt also explain Effects of impurities in pharmacopoeial substance.
ANATOMY :
It is the study of structure of whole body as well as its
different individual parts and their relationship amongst
each other.
PHYSIOLOGY :
It deals with the function of the body parts, and
their synchronized working to co-ordination of the
whole body
Surface anatomy : It is the study of the external surface of the body and different marking present .
Gross anatomy : It is the macroscopic study gross organ of the body
Systemic anatomy : It deals with the structure study of different system of the body , such as digestive system , nervous system etc.
Regional Anatomy : It is the study of specific region of the body such as thorax . Abdomen , chest , head etc. from anatomy point of view
Developmental anatomy : It is study of structural feature during development of the fertilized egg to adult form .
Cytology : It is the microscopic study of the structural feature of tissues.
Embryology : Initial eight week developmental study
of structure of fertilized egg.
Teratology: Study of congenital malformations.
Radiological anatomy: Study of anatomy using radiological techniques like: X-rays,CT (computed tomography) scans, MRI (medical resonance imaging).
Applied anatomy: It is anatomical knowledge with clinical application, useful for diagnosis and surgical procedures
Cell Physiology : Deals with the study of different functional characteristics of cell and its organelles .
2) System Physiology : study of function of different organ system of body
3) Cardiovascular Physiology : Study of function of heart and blood vessel
4) Renal Physiology : Deals with study of function of Kidney .
MEDICINAL GASES OR INHALANTS IN PHARMACEUTICALSP.N.DESHMUKH
Medicinal gases includes oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.
Each example includes its formula, mol. wt., chemical properties, uses, storage and precaution.
The document provides details on the skeletal system, including:
1) There are 206 bones in the human body that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage, providing protection, support, and carrying other body parts. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
2) Bones are composed of organic and inorganic materials and come in long, short, flat, and irregular shapes. They contain bone cells including osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts that form and break down bone tissue.
3) The skeletal system functions to provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, store minerals, and produce blood cells.
Herbal formulation shall mean a dosage form consisting of one or more herbs in specified quantities to provide specific nutritional, cosmetic benefits, or other benefits meant for use to diagnose treat, mitigate diseases of human beings or animals.
Herbal preparations are obtained by subjecting herbal substances to treatments such as extraction, distillation, expression, fractionation, purification, concentration or fermentation.
These include comminuted or powdered herbal substances, tinctures, extracts, essential oils, expressed juices and processed exudates.
Herbal cosmetic is defined as “ the beauty products, which possess desirable physiological activities such as skin healing, smoothening, appearance enhancing properties with the help of herbal ingredients.”
almond oil
olive oil
rosemarry oil
sandalwood oil
The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilages, and ligaments that provide structure, protection, movement, and blood cell formation. The axial skeleton forms the body's longitudinal axis and includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs that attach to the axial skeleton. Long bones have a diaphysis shaft and epiphyses ends. The skull is formed from multiple flat bones that protect the brain and sense organs. The vertebral column consists of vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs that allow flexibility. The rib cage includes ribs and sternum and protects the heart and lungs.
The document summarizes key aspects of the axial skeleton, including:
1. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. It forms the central axis of the body.
2. The skull is made up of multiple cranial and facial bones that protect the brain and house sensory organs. It includes prominent features like the foramen magnum, cranial fossae, and sutures.
3. The vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae that fuse into 24 bones in adulthood. It includes cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions with characteristic features.
4. The thoracic cage is formed from ribs, sternum and
Skeletal system
Divisions of skeletal system,
types of bone,
salient features and functions
of bones of axial and appendicular skeletal system Organization of skeletal muscle,
physiology of muscle contraction,
neuromuscular junction.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the
pelvic girdle with the lower limbs
Shoulder girdle and upper limb:
Each shoulder girdle consists of:
•1 clavicle
•1 scapula.
Each upper limb consists of the following bones:
1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.
This document discusses diabetes and anti-diabetic drugs. It defines diabetes as a chronic health condition that affects how the body turns food into energy. The three main types of diabetes are type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 is an autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing cells, type 2 involves insulin resistance, and gestational only occurs during pregnancy. Anti-diabetic drugs work by altering blood glucose levels. Examples mentioned are Pterocarpus marsupium and Gymnema sylvestre, which are used traditionally to treat diabetes.
The document discusses the anatomy and features of the human skeletal system. It describes the main components and functions of the skeletal system, including support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and energy storage. It provides details on the types of bones in the human body, including long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. It also summarizes the main parts of the axial and appendicular skeleton, focusing on the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and bones of the upper and lower limbs.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
The document summarizes the organization and components of the human skeleton. It describes the axial skeleton, which includes the skull and vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. It provides details on the bones and structures of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and their functions in supporting the body and vital organs. Key bones mentioned include the cranium, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae.
The document provides an overview of the skeletal system, including:
1. Bones are made of tissues like osseous tissue, cartilage, and connective tissue. The skeletal system framework includes bones and cartilages.
2. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, divided into the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum) and appendicular skeleton (limbs and their attachments).
3. Key bones include the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, and bones of the upper and lower limbs. The skull has 28 bones including cranial and facial bones.
The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement, and other functions for the body. It consists of both long bones and short bones, including those in the limbs, spine, skull, and pelvis. The skeletal system also produces blood cells and stores minerals. There are over 200 bones in the human body that can be classified by shape and location into groups like long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
The document summarizes the axial skeleton and its components. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull is made up of 29 bones divided into 5 areas: the cranium (8 bones), facial bones (14 bones), hyoid bone (1 bone), ossicles of the ear (6 bones), and Wormian bones (? bones). The cranium contains the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. The facial bones include the nasal, maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine, inferior nasal conchae, and vomer bones.
The drugs which used relieving pain in the stomach and intestine is Known as carminative.
The carminatives are prescribed in indigestion, gastric discomfort and loss of appetite.
The gastrointestinal regulators are the agents which regularize the activity of G.I tract and include
bitter stomach,
anti-emetics
and appetizers.
*coriander
*black pepper
*fennel
*caraway
*cardamom
*nutmeg
*asafoetida
This document discusses antimalarial drugs, focusing on Cinchona and Artemisia. It defines antimalarials as drugs used to prevent or treat malaria, which is caused by four Plasmodium species and transmitted via mosquito bites. Cinchona, whose active compound is quinine, is derived from Cinchona trees and has been used traditionally to treat malaria. It also has other medicinal properties. Artemisia annua contains the antimalarial compound artemisinin and has been used to treat malaria as well as conditions like epilepsy and irregular periods.
"Pharmaceutical aids are the drugs or substances which have no or little pharmacological.but they are essentially used in the preparation of pharmaceutical dosage form
The document summarizes the bones that make up the lower limbs, including the pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot. It describes the 32 bones of each lower limb, noting they are thicker and stronger than upper limb bones due to bearing weight. Key bones are identified for each region, along with landmarks and markings on each bone. Differences in male and female pelvic structures are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures, their forms, positions, and relationships. Physiology is defined as the study of body part and system functions. There are 12 main body systems described including the nervous, respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, and reproductive systems. Key anatomical terms are also defined such as cell, tissue, anatomical position, proximal, distal, superior, inferior, symmetric, and asymmetric. Other specialized areas of study within anatomy and physiology are also listed such as cytology, histology, myology, and neurology.
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, intr...Dr Shahid Alam
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, introduction to skeleton, axial skeleton, cranium, cranial bone mnemonic for cranial bone, bone of skeleton system, 206 bones by dr shahid alam, dr shahid, shahid alam, alam
THE SKELETON SYSTEM ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY SLIDESHARE Jitendra Bhargav
This document provides an overview of the skeletal system. It begins with classifying the different types of bones as long, short, flat, or irregular. It then describes the axial and appendicular skeleton in detail, identifying the specific bones that make up each part. Finally, it reviews bone tissue, the process of bone formation, growth and remodeling, and the three types of joints and movements they allow. The skeletal system has important functions of support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.
The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments. It provides structure and protection to the body. The skeletal system allows for movement through muscle attachment to bones. There are two major divisions of the skeletal system - the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum which protect the organs. The appendicular skeleton includes the limbs and girdles. Bones are classified as long, short, flat, irregular or sesamoid based on their shape.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
Herbal formulation shall mean a dosage form consisting of one or more herbs in specified quantities to provide specific nutritional, cosmetic benefits, or other benefits meant for use to diagnose treat, mitigate diseases of human beings or animals.
Herbal preparations are obtained by subjecting herbal substances to treatments such as extraction, distillation, expression, fractionation, purification, concentration or fermentation.
These include comminuted or powdered herbal substances, tinctures, extracts, essential oils, expressed juices and processed exudates.
Herbal cosmetic is defined as “ the beauty products, which possess desirable physiological activities such as skin healing, smoothening, appearance enhancing properties with the help of herbal ingredients.”
almond oil
olive oil
rosemarry oil
sandalwood oil
The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilages, and ligaments that provide structure, protection, movement, and blood cell formation. The axial skeleton forms the body's longitudinal axis and includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs that attach to the axial skeleton. Long bones have a diaphysis shaft and epiphyses ends. The skull is formed from multiple flat bones that protect the brain and sense organs. The vertebral column consists of vertebrae separated by intervertebral discs that allow flexibility. The rib cage includes ribs and sternum and protects the heart and lungs.
The document summarizes key aspects of the axial skeleton, including:
1. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. It forms the central axis of the body.
2. The skull is made up of multiple cranial and facial bones that protect the brain and house sensory organs. It includes prominent features like the foramen magnum, cranial fossae, and sutures.
3. The vertebral column consists of 33 vertebrae that fuse into 24 bones in adulthood. It includes cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal regions with characteristic features.
4. The thoracic cage is formed from ribs, sternum and
Skeletal system
Divisions of skeletal system,
types of bone,
salient features and functions
of bones of axial and appendicular skeletal system Organization of skeletal muscle,
physiology of muscle contraction,
neuromuscular junction.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
shoulder girdle with the upper limbs and the
pelvic girdle with the lower limbs
Shoulder girdle and upper limb:
Each shoulder girdle consists of:
•1 clavicle
•1 scapula.
Each upper limb consists of the following bones:
1 humerus, 1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpal bones, 5 metacarpal bones and 14 phalanges.
This document discusses diabetes and anti-diabetic drugs. It defines diabetes as a chronic health condition that affects how the body turns food into energy. The three main types of diabetes are type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes. Type 1 is an autoimmune disease that destroys insulin-producing cells, type 2 involves insulin resistance, and gestational only occurs during pregnancy. Anti-diabetic drugs work by altering blood glucose levels. Examples mentioned are Pterocarpus marsupium and Gymnema sylvestre, which are used traditionally to treat diabetes.
The document discusses the anatomy and features of the human skeletal system. It describes the main components and functions of the skeletal system, including support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and energy storage. It provides details on the types of bones in the human body, including long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. It also summarizes the main parts of the axial and appendicular skeleton, focusing on the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and bones of the upper and lower limbs.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help boost feelings of calmness, happiness and focus.
The document summarizes the organization and components of the human skeleton. It describes the axial skeleton, which includes the skull and vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. It provides details on the bones and structures of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and their functions in supporting the body and vital organs. Key bones mentioned include the cranium, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae.
The document provides an overview of the skeletal system, including:
1. Bones are made of tissues like osseous tissue, cartilage, and connective tissue. The skeletal system framework includes bones and cartilages.
2. There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, divided into the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, ribs, sternum) and appendicular skeleton (limbs and their attachments).
3. Key bones include the skull, vertebrae, ribs, sternum, clavicles, and bones of the upper and lower limbs. The skull has 28 bones including cranial and facial bones.
The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement, and other functions for the body. It consists of both long bones and short bones, including those in the limbs, spine, skull, and pelvis. The skeletal system also produces blood cells and stores minerals. There are over 200 bones in the human body that can be classified by shape and location into groups like long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones.
The document summarizes the axial skeleton and its components. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull is made up of 29 bones divided into 5 areas: the cranium (8 bones), facial bones (14 bones), hyoid bone (1 bone), ossicles of the ear (6 bones), and Wormian bones (? bones). The cranium contains the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. The facial bones include the nasal, maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine, inferior nasal conchae, and vomer bones.
The drugs which used relieving pain in the stomach and intestine is Known as carminative.
The carminatives are prescribed in indigestion, gastric discomfort and loss of appetite.
The gastrointestinal regulators are the agents which regularize the activity of G.I tract and include
bitter stomach,
anti-emetics
and appetizers.
*coriander
*black pepper
*fennel
*caraway
*cardamom
*nutmeg
*asafoetida
This document discusses antimalarial drugs, focusing on Cinchona and Artemisia. It defines antimalarials as drugs used to prevent or treat malaria, which is caused by four Plasmodium species and transmitted via mosquito bites. Cinchona, whose active compound is quinine, is derived from Cinchona trees and has been used traditionally to treat malaria. It also has other medicinal properties. Artemisia annua contains the antimalarial compound artemisinin and has been used to treat malaria as well as conditions like epilepsy and irregular periods.
"Pharmaceutical aids are the drugs or substances which have no or little pharmacological.but they are essentially used in the preparation of pharmaceutical dosage form
The document summarizes the bones that make up the lower limbs, including the pelvis, thigh, leg, and foot. It describes the 32 bones of each lower limb, noting they are thicker and stronger than upper limb bones due to bearing weight. Key bones are identified for each region, along with landmarks and markings on each bone. Differences in male and female pelvic structures are also summarized.
This document provides an overview of anatomy and physiology. It defines anatomy as the study of body structures, their forms, positions, and relationships. Physiology is defined as the study of body part and system functions. There are 12 main body systems described including the nervous, respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, and reproductive systems. Key anatomical terms are also defined such as cell, tissue, anatomical position, proximal, distal, superior, inferior, symmetric, and asymmetric. Other specialized areas of study within anatomy and physiology are also listed such as cytology, histology, myology, and neurology.
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, intr...Dr Shahid Alam
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, introduction to skeleton, axial skeleton, cranium, cranial bone mnemonic for cranial bone, bone of skeleton system, 206 bones by dr shahid alam, dr shahid, shahid alam, alam
THE SKELETON SYSTEM ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY SLIDESHARE Jitendra Bhargav
This document provides an overview of the skeletal system. It begins with classifying the different types of bones as long, short, flat, or irregular. It then describes the axial and appendicular skeleton in detail, identifying the specific bones that make up each part. Finally, it reviews bone tissue, the process of bone formation, growth and remodeling, and the three types of joints and movements they allow. The skeletal system has important functions of support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell formation.
The skeletal system consists of bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments. It provides structure and protection to the body. The skeletal system allows for movement through muscle attachment to bones. There are two major divisions of the skeletal system - the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum which protect the organs. The appendicular skeleton includes the limbs and girdles. Bones are classified as long, short, flat, irregular or sesamoid based on their shape.
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
The document provides information about bones and the skeletal system. It discusses the following key points:
- Bones make up the skeletal system and provide structure, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, and fat storage.
- The skeletal system includes long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones. It is divided into the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
- The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. It protects organs and allows movement.
- Bones are made of compact bone, spongy bone, periosteum, and marrow. A typical long bone has a diaphysis, epiphyses
The skeleton document describes the human skeletal system. It details that the skeleton is made up of 206 bones that form the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) and appendicular skeleton (shoulder and pelvic girdles with attached upper and lower limbs). The skeleton enables movement, protects organs, produces blood cells, and stores minerals. It categorizes each bone and describes its location, structure, and relevant features.
This document provides information about the skeletal system, specifically focusing on the axial skeleton. It defines the main types of bones and classifies them as long, short, flat, irregular, or sesamoid. It then describes the functions of bones and divides the skeletal system into the axial and appendicular skeleton. The majority of the document describes the bones that make up the axial skeleton, including the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum. It provides details on the individual bones of the skull and vertebral column, including their features and locations.
The skeletal system consists of 206 bones that form the framework of the body. There are two main parts - the axial skeleton along the body's central axis including the skull, vertebral column, and ribcage, and the appendicular skeleton of the limbs. The axial skeleton has 80 bones and protects internal organs. The appendicular skeleton has 126 bones and includes the shoulder and pelvic girdles and upper and lower limbs. Together the skeletal system provides structure, movement, protection, blood cell production, mineral storage, and triglyceride reserves for the body.
The skeletal system comprises 206 bones that support the body and allow for movement. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage, while the appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower limbs attached to the axial skeleton. The skull protects the brain and is divided into cranial and facial bones. The vertebral column is made up of individual vertebrae that protect the spinal cord and allow for flexibility. Bones are living tissues composed of minerals and connective tissues. The skeletal system provides structure, protects organs, allows body movement, stores minerals, and produces blood cells.
The skeletal system consists of bones and cartilage which provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, store minerals, produce blood cells, and store fats. The skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton which includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum, and the appendicular skeleton including the pectoral girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs. Bones are made of organic and inorganic components and contain osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts. Joints connect bones and allow movement, with synovial joints providing the most mobility.
The skeletal system consists of bones and cartilage that provide structure, protect organs, allow movement, and participate in other important bodily functions. The document defines and describes the skeletal system and its components. It discusses the types of bones, bone structure, markings and features, cells, histology, compact vs spongy bone, and divisions of the skeletal system including the axial and appendicular skeleton. Specific details are provided on various bones such as the cranial bones, vertebral column, and bones of the upper and lower limbs.
Skeletal System and division of axial and appendicularRupaSingh83
The skeletal system consists of the bones and joints of the body. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum, which form the core of the body. The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower limbs and their attachments. The skeletal system provides structure, protection, movement and mineral storage. It is divided into the axial and appendicular skeletons, with over 200 bones that can be classified by shape.
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together.
The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 21. The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton is formed by the vertebral column, the rib cage, the skull and other associated bones. The appendicular skeleton, which is attached to the axial skeleton, is formed by the shoulder girdle, the pelvic girdle, and the bones of the upper and lower limbs.
he skeleton serves six major functions: support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.
The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse.
The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeletal and muscular systems. The skeletal system includes 206 bones that make up the axial skeleton (skull, vertebral column, rib cage) and appendicular skeleton (shoulder and pelvic girdles, upper and lower limbs). Bones develop through the processes of ossification and remodeling. The skeletal system works with muscles to allow movement and protect organs.
The document summarizes the skeletal system, specifically the axial skeleton. It describes the main bones that make up the skull, vertebral column, and ribs. It discusses the classification of bones based on their microscopic appearance, developmental origin, shape, and location in the body. For each bone, it provides a brief definition and identifies its key features.
The skeletal system consists of bones, cartilages, and ligaments that provide structure and protection. The axial skeleton forms the central axis and includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull has multiple bones that form the cranium and face. Bones of the skull include the parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, maxilla, zygomatic, nasal, and mandible. The appendicular skeleton includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs attached to the axial skeleton.
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptxWINCY THIRUMURUGAN
A long bone has two parts: the diaphysis and the epiphysis.
The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone.
The hollow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity, which is filled with yellow marrow.
The walls of the diaphysis are composed of dense and hard compact bone.
The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with spongy bone.
The medullary cavity has a delicate membranous lining called the endosteum (end- = “inside”; oste- = “bone”), where bone growth, repair, and remodeling occur.The outer surface of the bone is covered with a fibrous membrane called the periosteum (peri- = “around” or “surrounding”). The periosteum contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that nourish compact bone.Flat bones, like those of the cranium, consist of a layer of diploë (spongy bone), lined on either side by a layer of compact bone .Four types of cells are found within bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteogenic cells, and osteoclasts .Compact bone is the denser, stronger of the two types of bone tissue ,spongy bone, also known as cancellous bone, contains osteocytes housed in lacunae, but they are not arranged in concentric circles. Bones of the axial skeleton protect internal organs that includes skull (22), vertebral column (26), thoracic cage (25), ear bones (6) & Hyoid (1) TOTAL = 80
Bones of the appendicular skeleton facilitate movement with TOTAL 126 (64 in the upper & 62 in the lower) appendicular skeleton.
126+80=206.Skull bones:
The adult skull comprises 22 bones. These bones can be further classified by location:
Cranial bones: The 8 cranial bones form the bulk of your skull. They help to protect your brain.
Facial bones: There are 14 facial bones. They’re found on the front of the skull and make up the face.
Vertebral column:
The vertebral column is made up 33 bones.
Cervical vertebrae: These 7 bones are found in the head and neck.
Thoracic vertebrae: These 12 bones are found in the upper back.
Lumbar vertebrae: These 5 bones are found in the lower back.
The sacrum (5) and coccyx (4) are both made up of several fused vertebrae. Thoracic cage: The thoracic cage is made up of the sternum (breastbone) and 12 pairs of ribs.
These bones form a protective cage around the organs of the upper part, including the heart and lungs & gives attachment to muscles involved in respiration and upper limb movement.
The sternum consists of the manubrium, body of the sternum, and xiphoid process.
Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs because they attached directly to the sternum in front and vertebrae at back
Ribs 8-12 are known as false ribs.
the last two false ribs (11 & 12), have no anterior attachment, are called floating, fluctuating or vertebral ribs.
Ear bones (6):
Bones of the inner ear: Inside the temporal bone are the 3 smallest bones of the body:
Malleus
Incus
Stapes ( the smallest bone in the body) etc..
The document summarizes the skeletal system. It discusses that the skeletal system is composed of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligaments. It then describes the main components of the axial skeleton - the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull is made up of numerous flat and irregular bones that form the cranium and face. The vertebral column consists of 26 vertebrae and intervertebral discs. The thoracic cage is formed by the sternum, ribs, costal cartilages, and thoracic vertebrae.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living tissues composed of cells, collagen fibers, and minerals. There are four types of bones - long, short, flat, and irregular - with different structures adapted to their functions. Bones develop through intramembranous or endochondral ossification and are remodeled throughout life by bone cells.
The skeletal system is composed of bones and associated tissues that provide structure, protection, movement, and mineral storage. Bones are living tissues composed of cells, collagen fibers, and minerals. There are four types of bones - long, short, flat, and irregular - with different structures adapted to their functions. Bones develop through intramembranous or endochondral ossification and are remodeled throughout life by bone cells.
The skeletal system includes bones, cartilage, ligaments, and connective tissues that provide structure and support to the body. Bones are composed of compact bone on the outer surface and spongy bone on the inner surface. Red bone marrow is found within bones and produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and stem cells. There are several classifications of bones based on shape including long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid. Bones develop through two processes - intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. The skeletal system allows for support, protection of organs, storage of minerals, blood cell production, and movement.
These are the pharmacological agent which when administered externally , bring loss of all five modalities of sensation with reversible loss of consciousness.
Light
Sound
Taste
Temperature/
Pressure
5. Smell
Diethyl Ether :
Physical Properties :
Colourless ,volatile liq. With pungent odour.
Boil at 350 C , vapor irritant.
Exposed in air , moisture or light , it get convert to ether peroxide and acetic aldehyde , which is irritant in nature
Highly explosive.
Stored in umber colour glass bottle covered with black paper.
10-15 % in inspired air is sufficient for induction of anaesthesia which can be maintained but 4-5 % concentration.
Pharmacological Action
Only a major portion of ether is oxidized in the body and is eliminated through the lungs .
The miscibility of drug with body fluid requires large amount of drug for induction of anesthesia and induction is slow.
Ether irritate the respiratory track and enhance the mucosal secretion.
Drug may causes laryngospasm ,Ether is also known to increase heart rate, blood pressure and blood sugar. It also causes peripheral vasodilation . Ether depresses myocardial contractility.
Advt / Therapeutic effect :
Safest agent in wide margine , also unexperienced hand.
90 mg/100 ml blood Indused anaesthesia
190 mg/100 ml bloodCauses respiratory Track
Not only safe anaesthetics but good analgesic also.
It does not interfere with uterine contractility.
Does not have any effect on liver , kidney , and heat.
No special or complicated apparatus if required.
Eeconomical agent .
These are the pharmacological agent which when administered externally relieves mild or moderate pains without degree of consciousness called as Analgesics are worked against the pain so firstly introduced the Pain sensation.
general pharmacology is information about drug abd human body mechanism . it shows about route of administration . pharmacological terminologies ADME of bady and their factors. bioavilability of drugs and related factor . general principle of drug action on body . After that descriptioun about mechanism of drug action . factor modifying drug action and dur interaction.
An institution providing medical and surgical treatment and nursing care for sick or injured people.
By WHO "Directory of Hospitals in India, 1988" is to some extent simple and short.
According to this,
definition. "A hospital is an institution which is operated for the medical surgical and/or obstetrical care of in-patients and which is treated as a hospital by the Centrally State Government/Local bodies or licensed by the appropriate authority.
1. Patient care:- patient care involves diagnosis, treatment ofllness or injury preventive medicine, rehabilitation, convalescent care, dental care, personalized services
2. Education services :- The education services are two form:-
a. Medical & allied health profession education: - Teaching of physician nurses, pharmacist, medical technologist, medical social service worker, hospital administration & training, dietician etc.
b. Patient education: - children, general education, social education for rehabilitation health care & also patient counseling.
3.Research: - Research is important to advanced medical knowledge against disease & to improve hospital service. This is important for better health care of patient.
4. Public health care: - public health is important to assist the community to reduce chance of illness & to improve general health population.
Autocoids are the self treating substance and local hormones . which is create changes in body Phisiology on the situation of to admine poisonous as well as foreign substance.
in this ppt gives Physiology of 5HT , Prostaglandin, and Histamine with their clinical use and adverse effect.
Also discussed about anti histamine , 5 HT antagonist with suitable examples.
Patient Councelling on Hypertension.pptxSwatiingle7
on that presentation include how to counselling on mild hypertension patient . How to produce it , which medicine gives and what is the side effect with their contraindication . and Informative presentation about primary hypertension. The hypertension is not curable disease but it is preventable as well as live long with this condition .
drug relative to eyes with their meiotic and mydriatic effect.
In the presentation discus about spasm of accommodation and cycloplegic action on eye . pharmacological action , dosage also discussed of condition developed on eye i.e. Glaucoma
Briefly describe sedative hypnotic drug with their classification and mechanism , therapeutic effect , adverse effect and dose preparation . this presentation is useful for pharma student .
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
When I was asked to give a companion lecture in support of ‘The Philosophy of Science’ (https://shorturl.at/4pUXz) I decided not to walk through the detail of the many methodologies in order of use. Instead, I chose to employ a long standing, and ongoing, scientific development as an exemplar. And so, I chose the ever evolving story of Thermodynamics as a scientific investigation at its best.
Conducted over a period of >200 years, Thermodynamics R&D, and application, benefitted from the highest levels of professionalism, collaboration, and technical thoroughness. New layers of application, methodology, and practice were made possible by the progressive advance of technology. In turn, this has seen measurement and modelling accuracy continually improved at a micro and macro level.
Perhaps most importantly, Thermodynamics rapidly became a primary tool in the advance of applied science/engineering/technology, spanning micro-tech, to aerospace and cosmology. I can think of no better a story to illustrate the breadth of scientific methodologies and applications at their best.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
Authoring a personal GPT for your research and practice: How we created the Q...Leonel Morgado
Thematic analysis in qualitative research is a time-consuming and systematic task, typically done using teams. Team members must ground their activities on common understandings of the major concepts underlying the thematic analysis, and define criteria for its development. However, conceptual misunderstandings, equivocations, and lack of adherence to criteria are challenges to the quality and speed of this process. Given the distributed and uncertain nature of this process, we wondered if the tasks in thematic analysis could be supported by readily available artificial intelligence chatbots. Our early efforts point to potential benefits: not just saving time in the coding process but better adherence to criteria and grounding, by increasing triangulation between humans and artificial intelligence. This tutorial will provide a description and demonstration of the process we followed, as two academic researchers, to develop a custom ChatGPT to assist with qualitative coding in the thematic data analysis process of immersive learning accounts in a survey of the academic literature: QUAL-E Immersive Learning Thematic Analysis Helper. In the hands-on time, participants will try out QUAL-E and develop their ideas for their own qualitative coding ChatGPT. Participants that have the paid ChatGPT Plus subscription can create a draft of their assistants. The organizers will provide course materials and slide deck that participants will be able to utilize to continue development of their custom GPT. The paid subscription to ChatGPT Plus is not required to participate in this workshop, just for trying out personal GPTs during it.
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
The use of Nauplii and metanauplii artemia in aquaculture (brine shrimp).pptxMAGOTI ERNEST
Although Artemia has been known to man for centuries, its use as a food for the culture of larval organisms apparently began only in the 1930s, when several investigators found that it made an excellent food for newly hatched fish larvae (Litvinenko et al., 2023). As aquaculture developed in the 1960s and ‘70s, the use of Artemia also became more widespread, due both to its convenience and to its nutritional value for larval organisms (Arenas-Pardo et al., 2024). The fact that Artemia dormant cysts can be stored for long periods in cans, and then used as an off-the-shelf food requiring only 24 h of incubation makes them the most convenient, least labor-intensive, live food available for aquaculture (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021). The nutritional value of Artemia, especially for marine organisms, is not constant, but varies both geographically and temporally. During the last decade, however, both the causes of Artemia nutritional variability and methods to improve poorquality Artemia have been identified (Loufi et al., 2024).
Brine shrimp (Artemia spp.) are used in marine aquaculture worldwide. Annually, more than 2,000 metric tons of dry cysts are used for cultivation of fish, crustacean, and shellfish larva. Brine shrimp are important to aquaculture because newly hatched brine shrimp nauplii (larvae) provide a food source for many fish fry (Mozanzadeh et al., 2021). Culture and harvesting of brine shrimp eggs represents another aspect of the aquaculture industry. Nauplii and metanauplii of Artemia, commonly known as brine shrimp, play a crucial role in aquaculture due to their nutritional value and suitability as live feed for many aquatic species, particularly in larval stages (Sorgeloos & Roubach, 2021).
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...AbdullaAlAsif1
The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Unlocking the mysteries of reproduction: Exploring fecundity and gonadosomati...
Osseous System Part I.pptx
1. Osseous System
Part - I
Swati G. Patil
M. Pharmacy
K.Y. D.S.C.Ts College of Pharmacy, Sakegaon.
2. Skeleton Constitute the bony framework of the body.
The framework of the body not only consist of bone , but it is made
up bone and other related tissue which actually hold the organs of
the body in place and thus make their possible called skeleton.
1) They form the supporting framework of the body
2) The form boundaries for the cranial , thoracic and pelvic cavities.
3) The give protection to delicate organs
4) They form joints which are essential for the movement of the body
5) They provide attachment for the voluntary muscles . This helps in the movement of joints
6) The form blood cells in the red bone marrow in cancellous bone
7) They act as store house of calcium salts
3. The bone making of skeleton are various type:
e.g. 1) long bone ( femur)
2) Short bone ( carpel in the wrist )
3) Flat bone ( skull)
4) Irregular bone ( vertebrae )
5) Sesamoid bone ( patella)
The bone skeleton are divided into two groupe:
(1) The axial skeleton : It consist of bone which
form scull, the vertebral column and thoracic age.
(2) The appendicular skeleton : It consist of shoulder
girdle , upper limb, pelvic girdle, lower limb
The total number of bone in adult skeleton about about 206
4. • It is also called gristle. It is modified connective tissue ,
• Cartilage is strong , it’s not as rigid as the bone
• It is like a flexible plastic and is found in those parts of the
where support is needed , but have to adapt themselves to
changes in position from time to time.
• It support and give shape to some parts of the body like nose ,
external ear, larynx , trachea.
• Cushions of cartilage are found between the bone of some of
the joints . Due to presence of cartilage in between the bearing
surface is increased and therefore the joint become stronger
and more efficient . Such cartilage cushion can be seen
between the bone of vertebral column.
• Cartilage is vascular , and consist of cells and fibers like that of
other tissues. In cartilage the fiber are surrounded by a firm
material which binds them together and also permit their slight
movement . The cells of cartilage are scattered through out the
cartilage substance , and the fibers of cartilage are produced by
these cells.
Cartilage
5. Bone
• A bone is a rigid tissue that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton in animals. Bones protect the various organs of the
body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility.
Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet
strong and hard, and serve multiple functions.
• Bones posses several ridges and elevation on its surface . These serves as the point of attachment for muscles and tendons
(a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone)
• All bone are externally covered by periosteum , which is a layer of tough tissue . Periostenum helps the bone grow , in
childhood , just as that of the bark of the tree
• Bone is firm and more or less brittle, it is a living tissue containing million of living cells. Each cell is located in a tiny
space and receive nourishment through minute canals which run through substance of bone
• The bone being living tissue require supply of blood . Some blood vessel enters the interior of the bone through the small
holies or canals called as foramen.
• The hard substance of bone is made up of organic and inorganic matter. Organic matter occurs in the form of fibers,
which are similar ligaments and tendons . These fibers are enclosed in mineral substance consisting principal of the salt of
calcium , phosphorus and magnesium
6. • The skull (also known as cranium) consists of
22 bones ,
8 cranial bones
14 facial bones .
The scull rests on superior end of the vertebral
column.
• The skull is a bony structure that supports the
face and forms a protective cavity for the brain.
• It is comprised of many bones, which are
formed by intramembranous ossification, and
joined by sutures (fibrous joints).
• The bones of the skull can be considered as two
groups:
cranium (which consist of the cranial roof
and cranial base)
face.
Axial skeletal
7. 1. Cranial cavity protects the delicate tissues of cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem and
orbits of the eyes.
2. To provide protection and structure to meninges.
3. Paranasal air sinuses make the skull lighter.
4. Orbital cavity protects the eye ball and gives attachment to the muscles that move the eye
ball.
5. It has maxillae and mandible which have alveolar processes that bear sockets for teeth.
6. Delicate middle and internal ear are protected in petrous part of temporal bone.
7. Bones of the skull form the boundary walls of nasal cavities which keeps the inlet of
respiratory passage open.
8. Structurally it provides an anchor for tendinous and muscular attachments of the muscles of
the scalp and face
9. The skull also protects various nerves and vessels that feed and innervate the brain, facial
muscles, and skin.
Function of skull
8. Anatomically, the cranium can be subdivided into a roof and a base.
Cranial roof – comprised of the frontal, occipital and two parietal bones. It is also known as the
calvarium.
Cranial base – comprised of six bones: frontal, sphenoid, ethamoid, occipital, parietal and temporal.
These bones articulate with the 1st cervical vertebra (atlas), the facial bones, and the mandible (jaw).
1) The Cranial Bone : Which
forms cranium and is made up of
eight bones
The cranium (also known as the
neurocranium)
• Is formed by the superior aspect
of the skull. It encloses and
protects the brain, meninges, and
cerebral vasculature.
9. 1)One Frontal bone
2)Two parietal bone
3)One Occipital bone
4)Two Temporal bone
5) One Ethmoid bone
6)One Sphenoid bone
10. There are eight cranial bones, each with a unique shape
1) Frontal bone : This is the flat bone that makes up forehead.
It also forms the upper portion of your eye sockets.
.
2) Parietal bones :This a pair of flat bones
located on either side of your head, behind
the frontal bone.
11. 3) Temporal bones : This is a pair of irregular
bones located under each of the parietal bones.
4) Occipital bone. This is a flat bone located in
the very back of your skull. It has an opening
allows your spinal cord to connect to your brain.
12. 5) Sphenoid bone. This is an irregular bone
that sites below the frontal bone. It spans the
width of your skull and forms a large part of the
base of your skull.
6) Ethamoid bone. This is an irregular bone
located in front of the sphenoid bone. It makes
up part of your nasal cavity.
13. • Cranial bones are held together by unique joints called sutures ,
which are made of thick connective tissue.
• They’re irregularly shaped, allowing them to tightly join all the
uniquely shaped cranial bones.
• The sutures don’t fuse until adulthood, which allows your brain to
continue growing during childhood and adolescence.
• They are immovable fibrous in type .
Suture
1. Coronal suture : In between frontal and two parital bones
2. Sagittal suture : The suture between two parital bones
3. Lamboid suture : The suture between two parital and one
occipital bone
4. Squamous suture : The suture in between parital and temporal
bone with lining attaches to lamboid suture
of left and right side of the scull
14. Face bone
14 Facial bone that form the face .
• Nasal bone (2) : that form the lateral wall of the nose
• Inferior nasal concha (2) : Forming lateral wall of the nose
• Vomer bone (1) : Which form the septum of the nose
• Lacrimal bone (2): Which form the medial wall of the orbit
• Zygomatic bone (2): These are also referred as the cheek bone
• Maxillae (2): Which unit to form the upper jaw bone.
• Mandible (1) :Which is known as lower jaw bone . It is largest and strongest facial bone , and the
only moving scull bone
• Palatine bone (2) :Are l –shaped and they form the posterior parts of the hard palate , parts of
floor , small portion of the floor of orbit and lateral wall of the nasal cavity .
15. Neck Bone
• 8 Bone are located in neck
region , which include one
hyoid bone and seven
cervical vertebrae .
• Hyoid bone is an unique
bone of the axial skeleton .
It dose not articulate with
any other bone. It is located
in the anterior parts of the
neck , below the mandible
and above thyroid
cartilage.
16. Typical vertebra
Typical vertebra
It consist of two basic parts
1. A body 2. The neural arch
The neural arch of typical vertebra
possesses following parts
a) 2 pedicles
b) 2 laminae
c) 2 transverse processes
d) 1 spine or spinous process
e) 4 articulate processes
It is solid box shape structure situated anteriorly and possess slightly concave
upper and lower surface . The intervertebral disc of fibrocartilage separate the body
of the vertebra from the upper and lower one
17. • The pedicles :
these are two short and stout bars of the bone that project
backward from either side of posterior aspect
• The laminae :
These start from posterior ends of the pedicles that back word
direction and meet in the midline behind.
• The transverse processes :
these project outward from the junction of pedicle with the laminae
on the either side .
• The spine and spinous process :
It is formed at union of laminae and project backwards ; but in few
parts , downwards
• The articular process :
These are two in number and are situated on the upper and lower surface on each vertebrae at junction of pedicle and
laminae , near the origin of transverse processes
• The neural Canal :
It is Roughly circular opening enclosed by body in front and the pedicles on either side and laminae behind , spinal
cord is enclosed with in .
Parts of vertebra
18. It consist of Twenty four separate , movable, irregular
bone called vertebrae .
which are classified as follows:
• Cervical: 7
• Thoracic: 12
• Lumbar: 5
In addition , consisting fused bone i.e.
• Sacral: 5 (fused into one bone, the sacrum)
• Coccygeal: 4 (fused into one or two bones, the
coccyx)
Functions
The vertebral column has four main functions:
• Protection – encloses and protects the spinal cord within
the spinal canal.
• Support – carries the weight of the body above the pelvis.
• Axis – forms the central axis of the body.
• Movement – has roles in both posture and movement.
By TeachMeS2021)
Vertebral Column
19. There are seven cervical vertebrae in the human body. They have three
main distinguishing features:
• Bifid spinous process – the spinous process bifurcates at its distal end.
• Exceptions to this are C1 (no spinous process) and C7 (spinous
process is longer than that of C2-C6 and may not bifurcate).
• Transverse foramina – an opening in each transverse process, through
which the vertebral arteries travel to the brain.
• Triangular vertebral foramen Two cervical vertebrae that are unique.
C1 and C2 (called the atlas and axis respectively), are specialized to
allow for the movement of the head.
Cervical Vertebrae
Cervical Vertebrae Function
• The cervical vertebrae are responsible for movements of the head and neck.
• They are relatively mobile and allow flexion and extension of the joints between the vertebrae, which helps
to produce movement.
• The atlanto-occipital joint has also been dubbed the “yes” joint because the joint allows you to nod your
head. The atlanto-axial joint is the “no” joint, allowing you to shake your head.
• The rest of the cervical vertebrae contribute to this movement through rotation, flexion, and extension.
20. • The first cervical vertebra ( C1 ) known as
atlas .
• It is large ring with anterior and posterior
arch and large lateral mass does not possess
body or spine .
• The superior articular facets articulate with
occipital , comdyles of the occipital bone .
• This articulation provides the “yes” saying
movement of scull .
• The inferior articular facets articulate with
axis .
Atlas
21. It is second cervical vertebrae . In the axis , a body is absent , it contains an up
projecting process called dens, which articulates with the atlas to form pivot joint,
which helps us rotating our head side- to- side.
( Dens)
The remaining four vertebrae ( C3 to C7 ) are typical cervical vertebrae . C3 to C7
posses bifid spinous processes where as seventh cervical vertebra ( c7 ) processes a
large , non-bifid spinous process , which may be left at base of the neck , therefore it
serves as an important anatomical landmark
Axis
22. These are larger and stronger as compared to cervical vertebrae . There
are12 thoracic vertebrae . The thoracic vertebrae articulate with rib , at
surface called facets .
The characteristics feature of the vertebra include :
a) Heart-shaped bodies, intermediate in size between the cervical vertebra
and lumber vertebra
b) The pointed spinous process are pointed downward
c) The possess two type of articulate facets for the rib
i) Two facets , one above and one below on each side of the bodies
ii) A small facets ate the tip of the transverse process articulating with
the tubercle of the rib
Thoracic Vertebrae Function
• To support the back.
• To provide a protective cage around the delicate organs of the thorax, including the heart and lungs.
• There is limited mobility in this section of the spine due to these joint articulations and their design.
• Cervical vertebrae that allow nodding and shaking of the head .
• The thoracic vertebrae allow some twisting and bending motions, but little beyond that.
Thoracic vertebra
23. • Lumber vertebrae are the largest vertebrae (five in number).
• Kidney shaped .
• They do not have articulating facets for the rib.
• The spinous processes of the lumber vertebrae are broad , flat and
stout and are directed backwards
• Well adapted for the attachments of the large back muscles
Function of Lumbar Vertebrae
Lumber vertebrae
• Protects the spinal cord and cauda equine (The collection of nerves at the end of the spinal cord is
known as the cauda equine)
• Supports and stabilizes the upper body
• Allows truncal movements
• Controls leg movements
• Contains 5 pairs of spinal nerves, which merge with the lumbosacral plexuses and innervate the lower
body
• to support the great weight of the body and allow certain movements, such as lifting objects
24. • It is a triangular formed by the union of five sacral vertebrae .
• It Articulate above with the fifth lumber vertebrae forming the
lumbo-sacral angle below with coccyx.
• The sacrum possesses anterior and posterior surface and lateral
margins.
The transverse processes project from the body .The neural
canal continued in the sacrum ( sacral canal) and at its lower end ,
open on to the surface of the bone . On the inferior side it articulate
with the coccyx
Function
• The sacrum connects to the hip bones and is important in forming a strong pelvis.
• The sacrum provides support at the base of your spine. (The sacrum is a very strong bone that helps to
support the weight of the upper body. In fact, it's so strong that it is seldom fractured. It takes a severe
injury such as a fall to fracture the sacrum, although someone with osteoporosis is at risk of stress
fractures in the sacrum.)
• There are also several muscles that connect to the sacrum. These muscles pull on the sacrum to allow
the leg to move.
• Without the sacrum, most activity wouldn't be possible, including walking, running, and climbing.
Sacrum
25. • It is referred to as the tail and also triangular .
• It consist of four fused rudimentary vertebrae
• On the upper side coccyx articulate with sacrum
and possesses a series of transverse processes on
the lateral surface
Function :
• When you sit in a chair, your weight is distributed onto your hip bones and your tailbone. This allows you to be
balanced and have stability so you don't topple over easily in your chair. Think of a three legged stool - if there
were only two legs, you could tip it easily.
• Has shock absorber.
Coccyx :
26. The skeletal framework of the thorax is formed by the thoracic vertebrae in the
back side and sternum , costal cartilage and ribs in front
The sternum 1
Pair of ribs 12
Thoracic vertebrae 12
The bone of thorax
27. It also known as breast bone . It is a flat bone and possesses anterior and
posterior surface . The costal cartilage of the rib are attaches to the
sternum .
The sternum can be divided into three parts :
a) The Manubrium
b) The body
c) The xipoid Process
• The manubrium is upper part of the sternum . It articulate with the
clavicle at the stenoclavicular joint .
• The cartilage of the first rib joint the sternum just below the
sternoclavicular joints.
• The body of the sternum is oblong in the shape. The cartilage of the
second rib joint the sternum at level of manubrium and the body . The
cartilage of 3rd , 4th , 5th, and 6th rib also joined to the body of sternum.
• The xipoid is the lower part of the sternum . The cartilage of 7th rib
joint at the union of xipoid and body . Xipoid process is initially
cartilaginous and gets ossified during adulthood. It is small triangular
process .
The sternum
28. The Ribs helps forming the thoracic cage which
protects the delicate lungs and hearts. There are
twelve pairs of ribs .
The ribs are divided into two different groups.
True ribs : The upper seven pairs of rib which
actually articulate with the sternum through the
costal cartilage are referred to as true ribs .
False ribs : The remaining five pairs , i.e. from to
12th are called false ribs , as they do not join the
sternum directly . The costal cartilage of 8th , 9th
and 10th rib fuse with the cartilage immediately
above. The 11th and 12th rib have only a small
costal cartilage and refer to as floating ribs.
The Ribs
29. Each rib is a long bone and is divided into :
a) Head : is slightly enlarge structures at posterior end
which articulate with thoracic vertebrae
b) Neck bone : the neck is the portion between head and
shaft . The neck regions possesses a tubercle and a facet
which articulate with the trancevers process of the
corresponding vertebrae.
c) Shaft :The shaft is flat and curved. Also it is slightly
twisted on itself . The portion of maximum curvature
is called angle of rib . The border of the attaches to
the intercostal mucosa
The Typical Ribs