skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, intr...Dr Shahid Alam
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, introduction to skeleton, axial skeleton, cranium, cranial bone mnemonic for cranial bone, bone of skeleton system, 206 bones by dr shahid alam, dr shahid, shahid alam, alam
Unit-III, chapter-2- Lymphatic System,
Functions of Lymphatic System,
Major Parts of Lymphatic System,
Composition of Lymph,
Lymph and Lymphatic Capillaries,
Structure of lymph node,
Mechanisms of Lymph Flow,
Functions of Lymph Node,
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT),
As per PCI syllabus,
B. Pharm. First Year,
Human Anatomy and Physiology-I.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight and reaches maximum density around age 21
Unit-I, Chapter_1 Nervous System Final PPT.pptAudumbar Mali
B. Pharm. Sem:-II,
BP 201T. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-II (Theory),
Nervous System:
Organization of nervous system, neuron, neuroglia, classification and properties of nerve fibre, electrophysiology, action potential, nerve impulse, receptors, synapse, neurotransmitters. Central nervous system: Meninges, ventricles of brain and
cerebrospinal fluid.structure and functions of brain (cerebrum, brain stem, cerebellum), spinal cord (gross structure, functions of afferent and efferent nerve tracts,reflex activity).
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, intr...Dr Shahid Alam
skeleton of human body, skeletal system of human body, skeleton anatomy, introduction to skeleton, axial skeleton, cranium, cranial bone mnemonic for cranial bone, bone of skeleton system, 206 bones by dr shahid alam, dr shahid, shahid alam, alam
Unit-III, chapter-2- Lymphatic System,
Functions of Lymphatic System,
Major Parts of Lymphatic System,
Composition of Lymph,
Lymph and Lymphatic Capillaries,
Structure of lymph node,
Mechanisms of Lymph Flow,
Functions of Lymph Node,
Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT),
As per PCI syllabus,
B. Pharm. First Year,
Human Anatomy and Physiology-I.
Skeletal system. anatomy and physiology of skeletal system. appendicular skel...mamtabisht10
SKELETAL SYSTEM
bones, cartilage and ligaments are tightly joined to form a strong, flexible framework called skeletal system
anatomy and physiology of axial and appendicular skeletal system
Axial Skeleton: The axial skeleton includes the skull, spine, ribs and sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages of the body, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
The human skeleton is the internal framework of the human body. It is composed of around 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to around 206 bones by adulthood after some bones get fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton makes up about 14% of the total body weight and reaches maximum density around age 21
Unit-I, Chapter_1 Nervous System Final PPT.pptAudumbar Mali
B. Pharm. Sem:-II,
BP 201T. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-II (Theory),
Nervous System:
Organization of nervous system, neuron, neuroglia, classification and properties of nerve fibre, electrophysiology, action potential, nerve impulse, receptors, synapse, neurotransmitters. Central nervous system: Meninges, ventricles of brain and
cerebrospinal fluid.structure and functions of brain (cerebrum, brain stem, cerebellum), spinal cord (gross structure, functions of afferent and efferent nerve tracts,reflex activity).
The skeletal system includes all of the bones and joints in the body. Each bone is a complex living organ that is made up of many cells, protein fibers, and minerals. The skeleton acts as a scaffold by providing support and protection for the soft tissues that make up the rest of the body. The skeletal system also provides attachment points for muscles to allow movements at the joints. New blood cells are produced by the red bone marrow inside of our bones.
Reproductive system
Anatomy of male and female reproductive system, Functions of male and female
reproductive system, sex hormones, physiology of menstruation, fertilization,
spermatogenesis, oogenesis, pregnancy and parturition
Human Anatomy and Physiology-II:
Endocrine System:
Classification of hormones, mechanism of hormone action, structure and functions of pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland,
adrenal gland, pancreas, pineal gland, thymus and their disorders.
BP201T. Human Anatomy And Physiology-II
Unit-III: - Urinary System.
Anatomy of urinary tract with special reference to anatomy of kidney and
nephrons, functions of kidney and urinary tract, physiology of urine formation,
micturition reflex and role of kidneys in acid base balance, role of RAS in kidney
and disorders of kidney.
Unit-III, Chapter-1- Respiratory System.pptAudumbar Mali
B. Pharm. First Year, Sem:II,
Unit III
Respiratory system 10 hours
Anatomy of respiratory system with special reference to anatomy of lungs,
mechanism of respiration, regulation of respiration
Lung Volumes and capacities transport of respiratory gases, artificial respiration,
and resuscitation methods.
Unit-III, Chapter 1. Registration of Indian Products in Overseas Market.Audumbar Mali
Unit-III, Chapter 1. Registration of Indian Products in Overseas Market.
B. Pharm. Final Year, Sem-VIII, BP804 ET: PHARMACEUTICAL REGULATORY SCIENCE (Theory),
As PCI Syllabus.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
1. BP101T. Human Anatomy And Physiology-I
(Theory)
Unit-II
2. SKELETAL SYSTEM
Represented By,
Mr. Audumbar Mali.
(Assistant Professor)
Sahyadri College of Pharmacy
Methwade
2. SKELATAL SYSTEM
• Bone tissues makes up about 18% of the total
human body weight.
• The skeletal system supports and protects the
body while giving it shape and form.
• Osteology: It is the branch of science that
deals with the study of the skeletal system,
their structure and functions.
4. FUNCTIONS OF SKELETALSYSTEM
• SUPPORT: Hard framework that supports and anchors the
soft organs of the body.
• PROTECTION: Surrounds organs such as the brain and
spinal cord.
• MOVEMENT: Allows for muscle attachment therefore the
bones are used as levers.
• STORAGE: Minerals and lipids are stored within bone
material.
• BLOOD CELLFORMATION: The bone marrow is
responsible for blood cell production.
5. DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETAL
SYSTEM
• The human skeleton consists of 206 bones.
• Bones of the skeleton are grouped into
two principal divisions:
– Axial skeleton:
• Skull bones, auditory ossicles (ear bones),
hyoid bone, ribs, sternum (breastbone),
and bones of the vertebral column.
– Appendicular skeleton
• Consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs (extremities), plus the bones forming
the girdles that connect the limbs to the axial
skeleton.
7. CLASSIFICATION OF BONE BASED
ON SHAPE
• Bones can be classified into five types based on
shape:
• Long
• Short
• Flat
• Irregular
• Sesamoid
8. CLASSIFICATION OF BONE BASED ON
SHAPE
• Long Bones
– Greater length than width and are slightly curved for strength
– Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna, radius, phalanges
• Short bones
– Cube-shaped and are nearly equal in length and width
– Carpal, tarsal
• Flat bones
– Thin and composed of two nearly parallel plates of compact bone
tissue enclosing a layer of spongy bone tissue
– Cranial, sternum, ribs, scapulae
• Irregular bones
– Complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the previous
categories
– Vertebrae, hip bones, some facial bones.
• Sesamoid bones
– Protect tendons from excessive wear and tear
– Patellae, foot, hand
9. THE AXIALSKELETON
The axial skeleton consists of :
1. Skull.
2. Vertebral column (spinal column).
3. Thoracic cage.
4. Sternum.
10. THE AXIALSKELETON
Skull
• The skull is situated on the upper end of vertebral column
and its bony structure is divided into 2 parts.
1. The cranium
2. The face
11. THE AXIALSKELETON
A. Cranium:
• It is formed by flat and irregular bones that provides a bony
protection to the brain.
• 1 Frontal Bone
– It forms the forehead, It forms parts of eye sockets
– The coronal suture joins the frontal and parietal bones.
• 2 Parietal Bones
– It form the sides and roof of the cranial cavity, it articulates
with each other at the sagittal suture.
– It joins the frontal bone with coronal suture and occipital
bone with lambdoidal suture and the temporal bones at
the squamous suture.
• 2 Temporal Bones
– These bones lie one on each side of the head and form
immovable joints with the parietal, occipital, sphenoid and
zygomatic bones.
– The temporal bone articulates with the mendible at the
tempo-mandibular joint.
12. THE AXIALSKELETON
Occipital Bone
– It forms back of head and most of the base of the skull.
– It has immovable joints with the parietal, temporal
and sphenoid bones.
Sphenoid Bone
– It occupies the middle portion of base of skull and it
articulates with the occipital, temporal, parietal and
frontal bones.
Ethmoid Bone
– It occupies the anterior part of base of the skull and
helps to form the orbital cavity, the nasal septum and
the lateral walls of the nasal cavity.
– It is very delight bone containing many air sinuses
that opens into the nasal cavity.
14. THE AXIALSKELETON
B. The Face (Facialbones)
• Nasal Bones
– Form the bridge of the nose
• Maxillae
– Form the upper jawbone
– Form most of the hard palate
• Separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity
• Zygomatic Bones
– commonly called cheekbones, form the prominences of the cheeks
• Lacrimal Bones
– Form a part of the medial wall of each orbit
• Palatine Bones
– Form the posterior portion of the hard palate
• Inferior Nasal Conchae
– Form a part of the inferior lateral wall of the nasalcavity
15. THE AXIALSKELETON
• Vomer
– Forms the inferior portion of the nasal septum
• Mandible
– Lower jawbone
– The largest, strongest facial bone
– The only movable skull bone
• Nasal Septum
– Divides the interior of the nasal cavity into right and leftsides
– “Broken nose,” in most cases, refers to septal damage rather thanthe
nasal bones themselves
• Orbits
– Eye socket
• Foramina
– Openings for blood vessels , nerves , or ligaments of theskull
18. THE AXIALSKELETON
• The vertebral column:
• Also called the spine, backbone, or spinal column
• Functions to:
– Protect the spinal cord
– Support the head
– Serve as a point of attachment for the ribs, pelvic girdle,
and muscles
• The vertebral column is curved to varying degrees
in different locations
– Curves increase the column strength
– Help maintain balance in the upright position
– Absorb shocks during walking, and help protect the
vertebrae from fracture
20. THE AXIALSKELETON
• The vertebral column:
• Composed of a series of bones called vertebrae
(Adult=26)
– 7 cervical are in the neck region
– 12 thoracic are posterior to the thoracic cavity
– 5 lumbar support the lower back
– 1 sacrum consists of five fused sacral vertebrae
– 1 coccyx consists of four fused coccygeal vertebrae
21. THE AXIALSKELETON
• Intervertebral Discs:
• Found between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae
• Functions to:
– Form strong joints
– Permit various movements of the vertebral column
– Absorb vertical shock
• Vertebrae typically consist of:
– A Body (weight bearing)
– A vertebral arch (surrounds the spinal cord)
– Several processes (points of attachment for muscles)
23. THE AXIALSKELETON
• Thorax: (Thoracic cage)
• Thoracic cage is formed by the:
– Sternum
– Ribs
– Costal cartilages
– Thoracic vertebrae
• Functions to:
– Enclose and protect the organs in the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
– Provide support for the bones of the upper limbs
– Play a role in breathing
24. THE AXIALSKELETON
• Sternum
– “Breastbone” located in the center of the thoracic
wall
– Consists of the manubrium, body, xiphoid process
• Ribs
– Twelve pairs of ribs give structural support to the
sides of the thoracic cavity
• Costal cartilages
– Costal cartilages contribute to the elasticity of the
thoracic cage
27. APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
• The appendicular skeleton consists of :
• 126 bones
• Allows us to move and manipulate objects
• Includes all bones besides axial skeleton
• The limbs
• The supportive girdles
• The Pectoral girdle with the upper limbs and the
Pelvic girdle with the lower limb.
29. APPENDICULAR
SKELETON
Pectoral Girdle
• The human body has two pectoral girdles that
attach the bones of the upper limbs to the axial
skeleton.
• The pectoral girdle consists of :
1. 2 Clavicle ( Collar bone)
2. 2 Scapula (Shoulder blade)
30. PECTORAL
GIRDLE
• Also called the shoulder girdle
• Connects the arms to the body
• Positions the shoulders
• Provides a base for arm
movement
• Consists of
• Two clavicles
• Two scapulae
•Connects with the axial
skeleton only at the manubrium
31. PECTORAL GIRDLE
• The Clavicles
• Also called collarbones
• Long, S-shaped bones
• Originate at the manubrium
(sternal end)
• Articulate with the scapulae
(acromial end)
33. PECTORAL GIRDLE
• The Scapulae
• Also called shoulder blades
• Broad, flat triangles
• Articulate with arm and
collarbone
• Anterior surface: the
subscapular fossa
34. PECTORAL GIRDLE
• The Scapulae
• Structures of the scapula
• Body has three sides:
• superior border
• medial border (vertebral border)
• lateral border (axillary border)
• Body has three corners:
• superior angle
• inferior angle
• lateral angle
35. PECTORAL GIRDLE
• The Scapulae
• The scapular head
• Holds glenoid cavity
• Which articulates with humerus
• To form shoulder joint
• Processes of the glenoid cavity
• Coracoid process:
• anterior, smaller
• Acromion:
• posterior, larger
• articulates with clavicle
• at the acromioclavicular joint
37. THE UPPER LIMB
• The upper limbs consist of the arms, forearms,
wrists, and hands
Note: arm (brachium) = 1 bone,
the humerus
38. THE UPPER LIMB
• The Humerus
• The Shaft
• Deltoid tuberosity:
• a bulge in the shaft
• attaches deltoid muscle
• Radial groove:
• for radial nerve
• posterior to deltoid tuberosity
40. THE UPPER LIMB
• The Forearm (also called the
antebrachium)
• Consists of two long bones
• Ulna (medial)
• Radius (lateral)
41. THE UPPER LIMB
• The Ulna
• The olecranon
• Superior end of ulna
• Point of elbow
• Superior lip of trochlearnotch
• Articulates with trochlea of humerus
• The coronoid process
• Inferior lip of trochlear notch
42. THE UPPER LIMB
• Eight carpal bones
• Four proximal carpal bones
• Four distal carpal bones
• Allow wrist to bend and twist
43. THE UPPER LIMB
• Metacarpal Bones
• The five long bones of the hand
• Numbered I–V from lateral (thumb) to medial
• Articulate with proximal phalanges
• Phalanges of the Hands (14 total finger bones)
• Pollex (thumb)
• Two phalanges (proximal, distal)
• Fingers
• Three phalanges (proximal, middle, distal)
45. THE PELVIC GIRDLE
• Made up of two hip bones (coxal bones)
• Strong to bear body weight, stress of
movement
• Part of the pelvis
• Coxal bones
• Made up of three fused bones
• Ilium (articulates with sacrum)
• Ischium
• Pubis
47. THE PELVIC GIRDLE
• Comparing the Male Pelvis and Female Pelvis
• Female pelvis
• Smoother and lighter
• Less prominent muscle and ligament
attachments
• Pelvis modifications for Childbearing
• enlarged pelvic outlet
• broad pubic angle (>100°)
• less curvature of sacrum and coccyx
• wide, circular pelvic inlet
• broad, low pelvis
• ilia project laterally, not upwards
52. THE LOWER LIMB
• The Patella
• Also called the kneecap
• A sesamoid bone
• Formed within tendon of
quadriceps femoris
• Base attaches quadriceps
femoris
• Apex attaches patellar ligament
53. THE LOWER LIMB
• The Tibia
• Also called the shinbone
• Supports body weight
• Larger than fibula
• Medial to fibula
54. THE LOWER LIMB
• The Fibula
• Attaches muscles of
feet and toes
• Smaller than tibia
• Lateral to tibia
55. THE LOWER LIMB
• TheAnkle
• Also called the tarsus
• Consists of seven tarsal bones
• Bones of the ankle
• Talus:
• carries weight from tibia across trochlea
• Calcaneus (heel bone):
• transfers weight from talus to ground
• attaches calcaneal (Achilles) tendon
• Cuboid:
• articulates with calcaneus
57. THE LOWER LIMB
• Metatarsal Bones of the Foot
• Five long bones of foot
• Numbered I–V, medial to lateral
• Articulate with toes
58. THE LOWER LIMB
• Phalanges of the foot
• Phalanges
• 14 bones of the toes
• Hallux
• Big toe or great toe, two phalanges (distal, proximal)
• Other four toes
• Three phalanges (distal, medial, proximal)
60. ORGANIZATION OF SKELETALMUSCLE
• All activities that involve movement depend on muscles
• 650 muscles in the human body
• Various purposes for muscles for:
• Locomotion
• Upright posture
• Balancing on two legs
• Support of internal organs
• Controlling valves and body openings
• Production of heat
• Movement of materials along internal tubes
• Three types of muscles in the human body
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
61. ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
•Skeletal muscles are muscles which
are attached to the skeleton.
•40% of human body mass
•Skeletal muscles are mainly
responsible for locomotion, and
contraction and voluntary relaxation.
62. ORGANIZATION OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
•Muscle (whole organ)
•Fascicle (portion of muscle)
•Muscle Fiber (single muscle cell)
•Myofibril (muscle cell organelle)
•Sarcomere (portion of myofibril)
•Myofilament (part of sarcomere)
63. STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
•Skeletal muscles are composed of clusters of
muscle cells.
• Muscle fibers
• Myofibers
• Myocytes
•A muscle consists of packages of muscle
cells called
fascicles
•A muscle cell is long and spindle shaped
64. STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
• Cell structure
• Muscles cells contain many nuclei
• The plasma membrane→ sarcolemma
• The cytoplasm→ sarcoplasm
• Length
• ranges from 0.1cm to more the 30cm in
length
• Diameter
• ranges from 0.001cm to 0.01cm in diameter
• Myofibrils→
• elongated protein molecules
• aligned in parallel arrangements
• extend the full length of the cell.
67. STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
The myofibril consists of protein
chains called myofilaments.
• Myofilaments have a
symmetrical, alternating
pattern of thick and thin
elements.
68. STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
• Thick myofilament
• consists of a large number of bundled myosin molecules aligned in
overlappingarrays.
• hexameric proteins with two identical heavy chains and two pairs of
different lightchains.
• regulatory light chain (RLC)
• essential light chain (ELC)
69. STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL
MUSCLE
• The thin myofilament (F-actin, filamentous actin)
• made up of two helically intertwined chains of G-actin
(globular actin) units.
• Other proteins that bind to the actin molecules:
• Tropomyosin
• The Troponin complex→ made up of three members
70. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
• SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM :
• The length of skeletal muscle shortens during contraction
because the thick and thin filaments slide over one
another. The process is known as the sliding filament
mechanism.
• The thick filament contains 300 myosin molecules.
• It contain two parts:
1. Myosin tail
2. Myosin heads
• Myosin tail forms the shaft of the thick filament and
heads projects towards the thin filament.
• Thin filament contain actin, troponin and tropomyosin.
71. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
• Myosin tail forms the shaft of the thick filament
and heads projects towards the thin filament.
• Thin filament contain actin, troponin and
tropomyosin.
• At the onset of contraction, the sarcoplasmic
reticulum release calcium ions into cytosol
• There they bind to troponin and cause troponin-
tropomyosin complexes to move away from
binding site on actin.
• Once the binding sites are free, the repeating
sequence of events of the contraction cycle occurs
that causes the filaments to slide on each other.
72. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
•The contraction cycle consists of 4 steps
1. ATPhydrolysis.
2. Attachment of myosin to actin to
form cross-bridges.
3. Power stroke.
4. Detachment of myosin from actin.
73. PHYSIOLOGY OFMUSCLE
CONTRACTION
1. ATP hydrolysis :
• The myosin head includes an ATP- binding site
and an ATPase, an enzyme that hydrolyses ATP
into ADP and phosphategroup.
• This hydrolysis gives energy to myosin head.
• ADP and a phosphate group remain attached to
the myosin head.
74. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
2. Attachment of myosin to
actin to form cross-
bridges:
•The energized myosin head attaches
to the myosin binding site on actin
and releases the previously
hydrolyzed phosphate group.
•When the myosin head attach to
actin during contraction, they are
referred to as cross-bridges.
75. PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLE
CONTRACTION
3. Power stroke :
•Once the cross bridges are formed, the
power stroke occurs.
•The cross-bridge rotate towards the
center of the sarcomere and release the
ADPmolecule.
•The cross-bridge generates a force which
slides the thin filament over the thick
filament.
76. PHYSIOLOGY OFMUSCLE
CONTRACTION
4. Detachment of myosin from actin:
•At the end of power stroke, the cross-
bridge remains firmly attached to actin
until it binds another molecule ofATP.
•As ATPbinds to the ATPbinding site on the
myosin head,the myosin head detaches
from actin.
77. NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
• A Neuromuscular Junction is the
synapse or junction of the axon terminal
of a motor neuron with the motor end
plate, responsible for initiation of action
potentials across the muscle's surface,
ultimately causing the muscle to contract.
78. • Morphology:
• The neuromuscular junction is specialized on the
nerve side and on the muscle side to transmit and
receive chemical messages.
• Each motor neuron runs without interruption
from the ventral horn of the spinal cord or
medulla to the neuromuscular junction as a large,
myelinated axon.
• As it approaches the muscle, it branches
repeatedly to contact many muscle cells and
gather them into a functional group known as a
motor unit .
80. • The nerve is separated from the surface of
the muscle by a gap of approximately 20
nm, called the junctional or synaptic cleft.
• The nerve and muscle are held in tight
alignment by protein filaments called basal
lamina that span the cleft between the nerve
and end plate.
• The muscle surface is heavily corrugated,
with deep invaginations of the junctional
cleft—the primary and secondary clefts.
81. The Neuromuscular junction consists of
A)Axon Terminal: contains
around 300,000 vesicles which
contain the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (Ach).
B) Synaptic Cleft :
20 – 30 nm ( nanometer ) space
between the axon terminal & the
muscle cell membrane. It contains
the enzyme cholinesterase which
can destroy Ach .
C) Synaptic Gutter ( SynapticTrough)
It is the muscle cell membrane
which is in contact with the
nerve terminal . It has many folds
called Subneural Clefts , which
greatly increase the surface area ,
allowing for accomodation of large
numbers of Ach receptors . Ach
receptors are located here .
82. • Formation of Neurotransmitter at
Motor Nerve Endings:-
• The axon of the motor nerve carries electrical signals
from the spinal cord to muscles and has all of the
biochemical apparatus needed to transform the
electrical signal into a chemical one.
• All the ion channels, enzymes, other proteins,
macromolecules, and membrane components
needed by the nerve ending to synthesize, store,
and release acetylcholine and other trophic factors
are made in the cell body and transmitted to the
nerve ending by axonal transport.
83. • Ach formed is stored in
cytoplasm until it is
transported into vesicles for the
release.
85. Ach release
Ca entry into the nerve
Opening of Ca channels
P channels L Channels (slow)
Na influx
Depolarisation
Nerve Action
Potential
86. Ach binds to the post junctionalreceptors
Opening of Na channels
depolarisation
Generation of Action Potential
Transmission of AP along sarcolemma to open Tubular Ca Channels
Muscle Contraction
87. • 1.Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic
neuron terminal, voltage-dependent calcium channels open
and Ca2+ ions flow from the extracellular fluids into the
presynaptic neuron's cytosol
• 2.This influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter-containing
vesicles to dock and fuse to the presynaptic neuron's cell
membrane. Fusion of the vesicular membrane with the
presynaptic cell membrane results in the emptying of the
vesicle's contents (acetylcholine) into the synaptic cleft, a
process known as exocytosis.
• 3.Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and binds to
the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors bound to the motor
end plate.
• 4.These receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, and when
they bind acetylcholine, they open, allowing sodium ions to
flow in and potassium ions to flow out of the muscle's
cytosol.
88. • 5.Because of the differences in electrochemical gradients across the
plasma membrane, more sodium moves in than potassium out,
producing a local depolarization of the motor end plate known as an
end-plate potential (EPP).
• 6.This depolarization spreads across the surface of the muscle fiber
into transverse tubules, eliciting the release of calcium from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, thus initiating muscle contraction.
• 7.The action of acetylcholine is terminated when the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase degrades part of the neurotransmitter
(producing choline and an acetate group) and the rest of it diffuses
away.
• 8. The choline produced by the action of acetylcholinesterase is
recycled — it is transported, through reuptake, back into the
presynaptic
terminal, where it is used to synthesize new acetylcholine molecules.
89. Acetylcholine
Ach is synthesized locally in the
cytoplasm of the nerve terminal ,
from active acetate
(acetylcoenzyme A) and choline.
Then it is rapidly absorbed into
the synaptic vesicles and
stored there.
The synaptic vesicles themselves
are made by the Golgi Apparatus
in the nerve soma ( cell-body).
Then they are carried by
Axoplasmic Transport to the
nerve terminal , which contains
around 300,000 vesicles .
Each vesicle is then filled with
around 10,000 Ach molecules.
90. References:
1. Presentation on Introduction To Human Anatomy
& Physiology,
By Mr. Abhay Shripad Joshi.
2. Human Anatomy and Physiology-I,
By Dr. Mahesh Prasad, Dr. Antesh Kumar Jha,
Mr. Ritesh Kumar Srivastav,
Nirali Prakashan, As per PCI Syllabus.
Page No. 2.4 to 2.19.
3. www.google.com.