The document summarizes key aspects of the immune system. It discusses the central and peripheral organs of the immune system including the thymus, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, and tonsils. It describes the development and maturation of white blood cells and B and T lymphocytes. It also summarizes the differences between humoral and cell-mediated immunity and the roles of B cells, T cells, antibodies, and cytokines in the immune response.
The main parts of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the lymphatic system, the spleen, the thymus, and the bone marrow. These are the parts of your immune system that actively fight infection.
A brief covering basics of immunity understanding and also allowing students to understand with ease the concepts of innate immunity, adaptive immunity, Tcell, Bcell, MHC molecular genetics, and also cytokines and also its role in various disease.
What process is used to obtain cells from bone marrow and normal peripheral blood?
What is the best cell counting and viability method for primary cells?
AllCells, your primary cells research partner, and Nexcelom Bioscience, your cell counting experts, have joined together in an exclusive collaboration to host a free webinar to help educate researchers and present data from their own experiences.
The main parts of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the lymphatic system, the spleen, the thymus, and the bone marrow. These are the parts of your immune system that actively fight infection.
A brief covering basics of immunity understanding and also allowing students to understand with ease the concepts of innate immunity, adaptive immunity, Tcell, Bcell, MHC molecular genetics, and also cytokines and also its role in various disease.
What process is used to obtain cells from bone marrow and normal peripheral blood?
What is the best cell counting and viability method for primary cells?
AllCells, your primary cells research partner, and Nexcelom Bioscience, your cell counting experts, have joined together in an exclusive collaboration to host a free webinar to help educate researchers and present data from their own experiences.
introduction of adaptive immunity. classification of adaptive immunity, factor affecting it and mechanism of adaptive immunity comparison between adaptive immunity and innate immunity. characteristic of adaptive immunity . cell mediated immune responses immunoglobulins
types of immunoglobulins. functions of immunoglobulins, hypersensitivity reactions
As a periodontist, I have included the basics of immunity from the periodontist point of view that will help in understanding the immunological basis of periodontal disease...
HIV discrimination among health providers in Malaysia by Dr RubzDr. Rubz
Although doctors took oath that they will treat everyone the best they can and without judging anyone but discrimination still exist especially in HIV affected people. Due to this issue, Pertubuhan Advokasi Masyarakat Terpinggir Malaysia has taken a step to engage with doctors at government sector and desensitize them and find the line to stand together.
Testicular cancer for public awareness by Dr RubzDr. Rubz
A presentation prepared for Charity Dinner with Fun Charity. All the profits of the event will go to FReHA (a NGO which supports women's and reproductive health.)
Prostate cancer for public awareness by DR RUBZDr. Rubz
A presentation prepared for Charity Dinner with Fun Charity. All the profits of the event will go to FReHA (a NGO which supports women's and reproductive health.)
Breast Cancer for public awareness by Dr RubzDr. Rubz
A presentation prepared for Charity Dinner with Fun Charity. All the profits of the event will go to FReHA (a NGO which supports women's and reproductive health.)
This is the first phase (qualitative) of the current project we are working on with the supervision of University Malaya and Yale School of Medicine.It will be publish as IBBS 2013 by end of the year. This slide is just a rough picture of what we are doing at the moment. This is copyright protected!
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
6. Lymph node Contain T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes Functions: filtration of particulate materials (microbes) and contribution of lymphocytes to the lymph as it passes through.
14. Parts of specific immunity The humoral immune system involves the antibodies that are dissolved in the body fluids such as the blood, lymph, and mucus secretions The cell-mediated immune system involves lymphocytes known as T cells, they act directly on other cells. It is most effective against intracellular pathogens and eukaryotic agents
15. Contrasting properties of B-cell and T-cell lines Cell function depends on type of T-lymphocytes subpopulation Production of antibodies General functions Sensitized T-lymphocytes of several types and memory cells Plasma cells and memory cells Product of antigenic stimulation Paracortical (interior to the follicles) Cortex (in follicles) Distribution in lymphatic organs High numbers Low number Circulation in blood Smoother Rough Texture of surface Several CD receptors Immunoglobulin Nature of surface markers Thymus Bone marrow Site of maturation T cells B cells
16. Micrograph of T lymphocytes Light micrograph Scanning electron micrograph
17. Markers of maturated human T lymphocytes CD45RA Naïve T cell CD45RO , CD3 Memory T cells CD4 Delayed hypersensitivity cells CD8 , CD5 T-suppressors CD8 , CD5, CD3, CD28 Cytotoxic (killer) T-cells CD4, CD3, CD28 T-helpers CD2 (common marker) Every T-lymphocyte Markers (receptor) on the cell surface T-lymphocyte (subsets)
18. Characteristics of subsets of T cells Develop from T-helpers and T-killers. Remain following an infection and are ready to mount a immune response more rapidly Memory T cells Responsible for allergic occurring several hours or days after contact with Ag; skin reaction as in tuberculosis test Delayed hypersensitivity cells ( Td, Tdth ) Destroy a target foreign cell by lysis; important in destruction of complex microbes, cancer cells, virus-infected cells, graft rejection; allergy Cytotoxic (killer) cells ( Tc, Tk ) Regulate immune reactions; cells limit the extent of antibody production; block some T-cell activity T suppressor cells ( Ts, T8 ) Assist B cells in recognition of antigen; assist other subsets of T cells in recognition and reaction to Ag T helper cells ( Th, T4 ) Functions Subset
19. Antigen presentation to helper T cell. Cooperation of T helper and B cell T helper T helper B cell MO MO Antigen macrophage MHC II
21. Cancer cell is attacked by killer T cells T lymphocytes Cancer cell
22. The third line of defense The third line of defense is specific immune factors ( antibodies and T-lymphocytes )
23. Features of innate and acquired immunity Antibodies Complement, cytokines, interferons, Humoral effectors Т- і В- lymphocytes Phagocytes, basophiles, eosinophils, natural killer cells , mastocytes Cell-effectors Yes No Dependence on В- and Т- lymphocytes Yes ( enhancing during repeated contact with antigen ) No Immunologic memory Yes Yes Antigen-dependent specificity Acquired Innate Feature
24. Types of acquired immunity Acquired immunity Natural Artificial Active Passive Active Passive
25. Features of acquired immunity Acquired by administration of protective antibodies; for example, the transfer of preformed antibodies, gamma globulin for hepatitis, temporary Artificially acquired passive Acquired following immunization, for example with poliovirus vaccine (past vaccine immunity) ; long-lasting, specific Artificially acquired active Transfer of antibody to agent from mother to fetus through the placenta (IgG) or with breast milk (IgA). Temporary Naturally acquire passive Antibodies and specialized lymphocytes acquired after natural exposure to a foreign agent (past infectious immunity). Long lasting, specific Naturally acquire active Properties Type
33. Chemical categories of antigens Cell wall of gram-negative bacteria Lipopoly-saccharides Bacterial capsule Polysaccharides (DNA complexed to proteins, but not pure DNA Nucleoproteins Viral envelope Glycoproteins Cell membrane Lipoproteins Enzymes, albumin, antibodies, hormones, exotoxins Proteins and polypeptides Object Chemicals
37. Haptens Hapten is a s mall foreign molecules that consist only of a determinant group and are too small by themselves to elicit an immune response Hapten has foreignness and specificity but has not immunogenicity When hapten combine with larger molecule-carrier such protein it can become antigenic
Editor's Notes
Central organs of immune system educate immune cells, peripheral organs directly realize immune response.
The primary precursor of new blood cells is a pool of undifferentiated cells called pluripotential stem cells maintained in the marrow. During development, these stem cells proliferate and differentiate —meaning that immature or unspecialized cells develop the specialized form and function of mature cells. The primary lines of cells that arise from this process produce red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). The white blood cell lines are programmed to develop into several secondary lines of cells during the final process of differentiation.
The size of the thymus is greatest proportionately at birth
Lymph nodes are small, encapsulated, bean-shaped organs, usually in clusters, along lymphatic channels and large blood vessels. Both the location and architecture of these nodes clearly specialize them for filtering out materials that have entered the lymph and providing appropriate cells and niches for immune reactions. A view of a single sectioned lymph node reveals its filtering and cellular response systems. The central zone, or medulla* is the location of T cells, and the surrounding germinal centers in the cortex* are packed with B cells. This system of sinuses and discrete lymphocyte zones filters out particulate materials (microbes, for instance) and contributes lymphocytes to the lymph as it passes through. Many of the initial encounters between lymphocytes and microbes that result in specific immune responses occur in the lymph nodes
The spleen is somewhat similar to a lymph node in its basic structure and function, except that the spleen circulates blood instead of lymph. The spleen serves as an important station for phagocytosis of foreign matter and immune reactions against bacteria and removes and breaks down worn erythrocytes.
Each cell type in circulating blood (bottom row) is ultimately derived from an undifferentiated stem cell in the red marrow. During differentiation, the stem cell gives rise to several cell lines that become more and more specialized.
Mature cells are released into the circulatory system.
The picture shows the cell types and relative proportions of circulating white blood cells.
In most immune reactions, the antigen must be further acted upon and formally presented to lymphocytes by special macrophages or other cells called antigen-processing cells (APCs). These large dendritic* cells engulf the antigen and modify is so that it will be more immunogenic and recognizable to lymphocytes. After processing is complete, the antigen is moved to the surface of the APC and bound to the MHC II receptor so that it will be readily accessible to the lymphocytes during presentation. The helper T cell that recognizes this antigen and MHC II can then interact with a B cell of the right recognition and activation.
For a killer T cell to become activated, it must recognize foreign receptors on a target cell and mount a direct attack upon it. After activation, the Tc cell delivers a dose of several cytokines that severely injures the target cell membrane (figure 15.21). This release of cytokines is followed by target cell death through a process called apoptosis
The highly specific third line of defense is acquired on an individual basis as each foreign substance is encountered by white blood cells called lymphocytes. The reaction with each different microbe produces unique protective substances and cells that can come into play if that microbe is encountered again. The third line of defense provides long-term immunity.
Acquired immunity occurs as the result of exposure to microorganisms or another foreign substance. Human acquires this immunity during ontogenesis. As a general rule, acquired immunity depends on a highly specific response against the invading agent. When natural im. – human acquired something (antibody or Ag in naturally pathway), when artificial – substance is entered in human organism artificially. When active immunity immune system works actively and produces Ab self-dependently, When passive im. organism receives preformed Antibodies.
How immune cells discriminate self cells from foreign? On the picture self cells have white components. What is it?
This gene complex gives rise to a series of glycoproteins (called MHC antigens) found on all cells except red blood cells. This receptor complex plays a vital role in recognition of self by the immune system and in rejection of foreign tissue. Genes that regulate and code for the MHC of humans are located on the sixth chromosome, clustered in a multigene complex of three subgroups called class I, class II, and class III
Because these marks were first identified in humans on the surface of white blood cells, the MHC is also known as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system. If specialized immune cells have not find on the cells their own MHC I antigens, they perceive these cells as foreign.
Whole microbes or their parts, cells, or substances that arise from other humans, animals, plants, and various molecules all possess this quality of foreignness and thus are potentially antigenic to the immune system of an individual
A lymphocyte's capacity to discriminate differences in molecular shape is so fine that it recognizes and responds to only a portion of the antigen molecule. This molecular fragment, called the antigenic determinant, is the primary signal that the molecule is foreign. The particular tertiary structure and shape of this determinant must conform like a key to the receptor "lock" of the lymphocyte, which then responds to it.
are termed haptens. However, if such an incomplete antigen is linked to a larger carrier molecule, the combination develops immunogenicity