Bacteria are microscopic single-celled prokaryotes that can exist as single cells or in chains and clusters. They lack nuclei and other membrane-bound organelles. Bacteria come in a variety of shapes (cocci, bacilli, spirilla, etc.) and arrangements (diplococci, streptococci) and have structures like flagella, pili, and cell walls. The cell wall composition differs between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, determining how they are stained using the Gram staining technique. Bacteria inhabit nearly all environments on Earth.
all relevant information that will assist the nurses to acquire the depth knowledge regarding morphological features of bacteria and its subject matter...............
A fimbria (Latin for 'fringe', plural fimbriae), also referred to as an "attachment pilus" by some scientists, is an appendage that can be found on many Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria, that is thinner and shorter than a flagellum. This appendage ranges from 3–10 nanometers in diameter and can be up to several micrometers long. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to adhere to one another and to adhere to animal cells and some inanimate objects. A bacterium can have as many as 1,000 fimbriae. Fimbriae are only visible with the use of an electron microscope. They may be straight or flexible.
A pilus (Latin for 'hair'; plural: pili) is a hair-like appendage found on the surface of many bacteria and archaea.[1] The terms pilus and fimbria (Latin for 'fringe'; plural: fimbriae) can be used interchangeably, although some researchers reserve the term pilus for the appendage required for bacterial conjugation. All pili in the latter sense are primarily composed of pilin proteins, which are oligomeric.
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Protozoa (also protozoan, plural protozoans) is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.
all relevant information that will assist the nurses to acquire the depth knowledge regarding morphological features of bacteria and its subject matter...............
A fimbria (Latin for 'fringe', plural fimbriae), also referred to as an "attachment pilus" by some scientists, is an appendage that can be found on many Gram-negative and some Gram-positive bacteria, that is thinner and shorter than a flagellum. This appendage ranges from 3–10 nanometers in diameter and can be up to several micrometers long. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to adhere to one another and to adhere to animal cells and some inanimate objects. A bacterium can have as many as 1,000 fimbriae. Fimbriae are only visible with the use of an electron microscope. They may be straight or flexible.
A pilus (Latin for 'hair'; plural: pili) is a hair-like appendage found on the surface of many bacteria and archaea.[1] The terms pilus and fimbria (Latin for 'fringe'; plural: fimbriae) can be used interchangeably, although some researchers reserve the term pilus for the appendage required for bacterial conjugation. All pili in the latter sense are primarily composed of pilin proteins, which are oligomeric.
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Protozoa (also protozoan, plural protozoans) is an informal term for a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, which feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris.
The term "algae" covers many different organisms capable of producing oxygen through photosynthesis (the process of harvesting light energy from the sun to generate carbohydrates).
Algae are a diverse group of aquatic organisms that have the ability to conduct photosynthesis. Certain algae are familiar to most people; for instance, seaweeds (such as kelp or phytoplankton), pond scum or the algal blooms in lakes. However, there exists a vast and varied world of algae that are not only helpful to us, but are critical to our existence.
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms. Bacteria are found almost everywhere on Earth and are vital to the planet's ecosystems. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. The human body is full of bacteria, and in fact is estimated to contain more bacterial cells than human cells.
The term "algae" covers many different organisms capable of producing oxygen through photosynthesis (the process of harvesting light energy from the sun to generate carbohydrates).
Algae are a diverse group of aquatic organisms that have the ability to conduct photosynthesis. Certain algae are familiar to most people; for instance, seaweeds (such as kelp or phytoplankton), pond scum or the algal blooms in lakes. However, there exists a vast and varied world of algae that are not only helpful to us, but are critical to our existence.
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms. Bacteria are found almost everywhere on Earth and are vital to the planet's ecosystems. Some species can live under extreme conditions of temperature and pressure. The human body is full of bacteria, and in fact is estimated to contain more bacterial cells than human cells.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria: BACTERIA AS A MODEL ORGANISM
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
EubacteriaDefinitionBacteria are prokaryotic single-celled or BetseyCalderon89
Eubacteria
Definition
Bacteria are prokaryotic single-celled or colonial microorganisms
Characteristics of Bacteria
Lack Green Pigment Chlorophyll
Reproduce by Transverse Fission
Morphology
Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes.
Size
0.5 µm diameter
Length 0.5 µm - 80 µm
Bacterial cells are about one-tenth the size of eukaryotic cells and are typically 0.5–5.0 micrometers in length. However, a few species are visible to the unaided eye—for example, Thiomargarita namibiensis is up to half a millimeter long] and Epulopiscium fishelsoni reaches 0.7 mm.] Among the smallest bacteria are members of the genus Mycoplasma, which measure only 0.3 micrometers, as small as the largest viruses.] Some bacteria may be even smaller, but these ultramicrobacteria are not well-studied.
Shape
Spherical – coccus
Rod-shaped - bacillus
Vibrio - Comma shaped
Spiral-shaped -spirillum
Spherical bacteria are known as cocci (singular coccus, Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacilli. Some bacteria, called vibrio, are shaped like slightly curved rods or comma-shaped; others can be spiral-shaped, called spirilla, or tightly coiled, called spirochaetes. A small number of other unusual shapes have been described, such as star-shaped bacteria.
Arrangements of Bacterial Cells
Bacteria are unicellular or colonial
Colonial – cells remain together after division
Colony type – depends on plane of cleavage and planes of successive cleavage.
Bacillus – can only divide in one plane, at right angles to the long axis of the cell.
Streptobacillus
Diplobacillus – remain in pairs following division. after 4 chain fragments
Spirillum- (spiral) divides in one plane
2 types:
Strepto spirillum
Diplo spirillum
Spherical (coccus) can initially divide in any plane. Great variation in colony types.
Streptococcus
Cells divide simultaneously
Diplococcus
If after 4 unit, chain fragments into chains of 2 organisms each – diplococcus
Tetrad Gaffkya
Cells divide at right angles to the preceding division
Sarcina – 3 planes of division. Successive planes are at right angles
Sarcina colonies are cuboidal. All dimensions are the same.
Staphylococcus – irregular cluster of spherical cells. Cells divide in any plane. No pattern
Coccus organism –the type of colony is a species characteristic. It can be used to identify an organism. The colony type is often indicated by the generic name. This is not true of bacillus or spirillum. The colony type can be varied by environment or temperature.
Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells; others associate in characteristic patterns: Neisseria forms diploids (pairs), streptococci form chains, and staphylococci group together in "bunch of grapes" clusters. Bacteria can also group to form larger multicellular structures, such as the elongated filaments of Actinobacteria species, the aggregates of Myxobacteria species, and the complex hyphae of Streptomyces species. These multicellular structures are often only seen in cert ...
What is bacteria?(Structures Present in Bacteria And their Functions | Prokar...sehriqayyum
Explains what bacteria is and where it exists.
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
The cell walls of prokaryotes differ in structure from those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plants and fungi, the walls are usually made of cellulose or chitin. In contrast, most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Using a technique called the Gram stain, developed by the 19th-century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram, scientists can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan
and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded
to lipids).
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts (the motor, hook, and filament) that are themselves composed of 42 different kinds of proteins.The cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes
in both their internal structure and the physical arrangement
of their DNA. The genome of a prokaryote is structurally different from
a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerably less DNA. Prokaryotes generally have circular chromosomes, whereas eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
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Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...
Bacteria
1. BY:
MRS. MALI DHANASHRI R.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
GES’S SIR DR. M. S. GOSAVI COLLEGE OF PHARMACEUTICAL
EDUCATION AND RESEACH
2. Bacteria represent a large and diverse group of microorganisms
that can exist as single cells or as cell clusters.
Bacteria prokaryotic microorganisms a single-celled microscopic
organisms that lack nuclei and other organized cell structures.
"Bacteria" is the plural form of “bacterium”.
The small size, simple design, and broad metabolic capabilities of
bacteria allow them to grow and divide very rapidly and to inhabit
and flourish in almost any environment.
3. Both deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Prokaryotic microorganisms
Do not contain chlorophyll: need a host to supply food and also a
supportive environment
Present in water, soil, air, food, and all natural environment.
They can grow in a multiplicitynof environments ranging from
hot sulphur springs (65 ° C) to deep freezers ( − 20 ° C),
from high (pH 1) to low (pH 13) acidity and
high (0.7 m) to low osmolarity (water).
In addition, in both nutritionally rich (compost) and nutritionally
poor (distilled water) situations.
5. MORPHOLOGY
Bacteria display a wide diversity of shapes and sizes called morphologies
Cannot be seen with human eyes (microscopic)
Their presence was only first recognized in 1677, when the Dutch naturalist Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek saw microscopic organisms in a variety of substances with the aid of primitive
microscopes.
Now bacteria are usually examined under light microscopes capable of more than 1,000-fold
magnification
Details of their internal structure can be observed only with the aid of much more powerful
transmission electron microscopes.
Unless special phase-contrast microscopes are used, bacteria have to be stained with a
coloured dye so that they will stand out from their background.
6. Cell size
The smallest free - living organisms
Their size being measured in micrometres (microns)
The size & shape vary between the dimensions of 0.75 to 4.0 μm.
The cocci diameter near about 1 μm
An average rod-shaped bacterium measures approximately 1 μm in
diameter and 4 μm in length.
They usually vary in size considerably from < 0.5 to 1.0 μm in
diameter to 10–20 μm in length in some of the longer spiral forms.
7. smallest bacteria- Mycoplasma, which measure about 0.1 to
0.25 μm in diameter, as small as the largest viruses.
E. coli, a normal inhabitant of the intestinal tract of humans
and animals, is about 2 μm long and 0.5 μm in diameter
Spherical cells of Staphylococcus aureus - up to 1 μm in
diameter.
Some bacteria are relatively large, such as Azotobacter,
which has diameters of 2 to 5 μm or more
8. Cell Shape
• On basis of shape, bacteria are
classified as follows….
Cocci
Bacilli
Vibrios
Spirilla
Spirochetes
Actinomycetes
Mycoplasams
9. Cocci
Cocci are small, spherical or oval in shape
In greek ‘kokkos’ means berry
E.g. Micrococcus
10. Bacilli
They are rod in shapes.
It is derived from greek word ‘Bacillum’ meaning
stick.
Some of the bacilli the length of the cell may be
equal to width those are called coccobacilli
E.g. Bracella
14. Acetinomycetes
These are branching
filamentous bacteria.
The characteristics shape due
to the presence of rigid cell
wall.
E.g. Streptomyces species.
15. Mycoplasma
Those are cell wall deficient bacteria
So that, they do not have stable
morphology.
They occur as round or oval bodies
with interlacing fillaments.
16. Arrangement of Bacteria
• Cocci appears as several characteristics arrangement or
grouping.
1.Diplococci
2.Streptococci
3.Tetracocci
4.Staphylococci
5.Sarcinae
17. Cocci- Arrangement
Diplococci
They split in one plane and remains in pair.
Eg: diplococcus pneumoniae.
Streptococci
These cells divide in one planes and remain
attached, to form chains.
Eg: streptococcus lactis.
18. Tetracocci
They divide in two planes and live in
groups of four.
Eg: Gaffyka tetragena.
Staphylococci
Cocci cells divide in three planes in an
irregular pattern.
These cells produce bunches of cocci as
in grapes.
Eg: staphylococcus aureus,
staphylococcus albus.
19. Sarcinae
Sarcinae cells divide in three
planes in a regular pattern.
These cells produces a cuboidal
arrangement of group of a eight
cells.
Eg: Micrococcus tetragena.
21. DIPLOBACILLI
Arrangement of groupings formed by
bacilli species are limited & those split
across their short axis.
They may appear as pair those called
Diplobacilli e.g.
klebisella pneumoniae
23. TRICHOMES
Some bacilli species are found in chain like structure
but have much large area of contact between the
adjacent cells those are called trichomes
e.g.Saprospira species
25. 1. FLAGELLA
Flagella are long, slender, thin hair-like cytoplasmic
appendages,
which are responsible for the motility of bacteria.
These are the organs of locomotion.
They are 0.01 to 0.02 μm in diameter, 3 to 20 μm in
length.
Flagella are made up of a protein- flagellin.
26. Flagella found in both Gram-positive &
negative bacteria.
Few coccal forms, most bacilli & almost
all of the spirilla & vibrios are motile by
flagella.
They can be seen by compound
microscope with special staining
technique & can be seen easily under
electron microscope & dark filled
microscope.
28. • Filament is the thin, cylindrical, long outermost region with a
constant diameter.
• The protein in filament is flagellin similar to keratin, Mol. Wt 20,000-
40,000.
• The filament is attached to a slightly wider hook. It consist of diffent
proteins.
• The basal body is composed of a small central rod inserted into a
series of rings.
29. Gram negative bacteria contain four rings
as L-ring, P-ring, S-ring, M-ring.
Gram positive bacteria have only S and M
rings in basal body.
L- ring is embedded in lipolysaccharide
layer of outer membrane
P- ring in pepetidoglycan layer
S- ring- Just above cytoplasmic membrane
( Semi position of membrane)
M- ring- within cytoplasmic membrane
30. Flagella may be seen on bacterial body in following manner.
1. Monotrichous: These bacteria have single polar flagellum.
Eg: vibrio cholera
2. Lophotrichous: These bacteria have two or more flagella
only at one end of the cell. Eg: pseudomonas fluorescence.
3. Amphitrichous: These bacteria have single polar flagella or
tuft of flagella at both poles. Eg :Aquaspirillum serpens.
4. Peritrichous: Several flagella present all over
the surface of
bacteria. Eg: Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi.
31. Fimbriae
Fimbriae are similar structure like flagella but not involved in
motility.
shorter than flagella (3 μm).
distributed over the entire surface of the cell.
act primarily as adhesions & allow to microorganism to attach
to surface.
Responsible for haemagglutination & cell clumping in
bacteria.
Each bacteria possess 100 to 200 fimbriae
32. Pili
Pili are hair-like microfibrils, 0.5 to 2 μm in length and 5 to 7
nm in diameter.
thinner, shorter and more numerous than flagella.
present only on gram negative cells.
composed of protein known as pillin.
unrelated to motility and are found on motile and non-motile
cells.
33. Pili are usually longer than fimbriae and number only one or
two per cell.
Pili play an important role in attachment to surfaces. Hence
pili is also called organ of adhesion.
Specialized pili, the sex pili, allows the transfer of genetic
material from one bacteria to another in a process called
conjugation where they are called conjugation pili or "sex
pili"
34. Capsule
Glycocalyx : sticky coating produced by many bacteria
covering the surface of cell.
The glycocalyx is composed of polysaccharidesn(sugars) and
proteins.
Bacteria synthesize loose amorphous organic exopolymer
which is deposited outside and tightly to cell wall
The EPS(extracelluar polysaccharides) contains 2%
carbohydrate & 98% water so, they produce gummy exterior to
the cell.
35. Morphologically two extreme forms exist…
i. Capsules and ii. Slime
Capsules: which forms rigid, tightly & closely associated
with cell
Slimes: which are loosely associated with cell.
Capsulated bacteria produces smooth colonies and non
capsulated bacteria produces rough colonies on the
surface of agar media.
36. Function of capsule & slime
They protect from desiccation.
They provide a protection barrier against the penetration of
biocides.
They protect against engulfment by phagocytes & protozoa.
They may promote the stability of bacterial suspension by
preventing the cells from aggregation & settling.
They may promote attachments of bacteria to surface.
37. Cell wall
Cell wall is rigid structure which gives definite shape to cell (spherical, rod and
spiral).
situated between the capsule and cytoplasmic membrane.
It is about 10 – 20 nm in thickness and constitutes 20-30 % of dry weight of
cell.
The cell wall cannot be seen by direct light microscopy and does not stain
easily by different staining reagents.
Composed of peptidoglycan (polysaccharides + protein)
Mycoplasma are bacteria that have no cell wall and therefore have no definite
shape.
38. The cell wall of bacteria contains
diaminopimelic acid (DAP), muramic
acid and teichoic acid.
These substances are joined together to
give rise to a complex polymeric
structure known as peptidoglycan or
murein or mucopeptide.
Peptidoglycan is the major constituent
of the cell wall of gram positive bacteria
(50 to 90 %) where as in gram negative
bacterial cell wall its presence is only 5 -
10 %.
39. Peptidoglycan = (polysaccharides +
protein),
Peptidoglycan (murein) is a large macromolecules containing glycan (polysaccharide)
chains that are cross-linked by short peptide bridge.
peptidoglycan is made from polysaccharide chains
cross-linked by peptides containing D-amino acids
The glycan chain act as a backbone to peptidoglycan
Those short peptide bridge composed of alternating residues of
N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM) &
N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG).
40. Each molecule of NAM attached a tetrapeptide.
Tetrapeptide consisting of the amino acids L-alanine, Dalanine, D-glutamic
acid & lycine or diaminopimelic acid (DAP).
This glycan tetrapeptide repeat unit is cross -linked to adjacent glycan chain.
This adjacent glycan chain occurs through a direct peptide linkage or a
peptide interbridge.
The type & number of cross linking amino acids vary from organism to
organism.
41. Functions of cell wall
Cell wall is involved in growth and cell division of bacteria.
It gives shape to the cell.
It gives protection to internal structure and acts as supporting layer.
To prevent rupture of bacteria caused by osmotic pressure differences
between intra cellular and extra cellular environment.
To provide support for flagella.
To regulate a certain degree of passage of molecules into and out of the
cell.
It serve as the sites of attachment for most bacterial viruses.
42. • On the basis of structure of cell wall, bacteria can be classified as
1. Gram-positive
2. Gram- negative
• The staining technique used to distinguish this bacteria is called as Gram staining
technique.
43. Gram Staining
Developed in 1884 by Danish scientist Christian Gram.
It is a differential stain.
In this, bacteria are first stained with crystal violet, then
treated with a mordant - a solution that fixes the stain
inside the cell.
Bacteria are then washed with a decolorizing agent, such
as alcohol, and counterstained with safranin, a light red
dye.
44. Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or
violet by Gram staining.
Gram-negative bacteria cannot retain the crystal violet stain,
instead take up the counterstain and appearred or pink.
The walls of gram-positive bacteria have more peptidoglycans than
do gram-negative bacteria.
Thus, gram-positive bacteria retain the original violet dye and
cannot be counterstained.
45. Gram-positive Cells
Gram positive bacterial cell wall
consist of a single type of molecules.
Cell wall thick near about 20 to 80 nm.
In that present of 60 to 80 %
peptidoglycan.
Gram positive walls frequently
contains acidic polysachrides are
called teichoic acids.
46. Teichoic acid are either ribitol phosphate or glycerol
phosphate molecules that are connected by phosphodiester
bridge.
In some gram positive bacteria glycerol-teichoic acids are
bound to lipids membrane and termed as lipoteichoic acid.
Those lipoteichoic acid create infection by killing bacteria &
shows inflammation.
47. Gram-negative
• Gram negative cell wall are multilayered & complex type
structure.
• Gram negative cell wall consist 10 to 20 % peptidoglycan.
• In that second layer found outside the peptidoglycan
layer.
• This layer is asymmetrical & contains proteins,
lipoproteins, phospholipids & lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
48. • This outer layer is attached to
peptidoglycan & the other end is fixed in
the outer membrane.
• In the inner leaf of the outer layer conatins
phospholipids & it’s outer layer composed
with LPS (lipopoysaccharide), a
polysaccharide-lipid molecule.
• In gram negative cell, the LPS is an
important molecule because it determine
the antigenicity & it is extremely toxic to
animal cell.
• In the LPS molecules contains three
regions
49. • Lipid A linked to core polysaccharide by the molecule KDO
(ketodeoxyoctonate) & other end of core polysaccharide is the O-
polysaccharide.
• In the O-polysaccharide or O-antigen usually contains six-carbon sugars as
well as one or more usually deoxy sugars such as abequose
• In the lipid A components are gives toxic & pathogenic properties to the
gram-negative bacteria.
• Gram negative bacterial outer membrane is relatively permeable to small
molecules but not for enzymes or large molecules.
• The region between the outer surface of the cytoplasmic membrane & the
inner surface of the outer membrane is called the periplasm.
50. • outer membrane
• • Similar to the plasma membrane, but is less permeable .
• This membrane has tiny holes or openings called porins.
• Porins block the entrance of harmful chemicals and antibiotics, making G-ve
bacteria much more difficult to treat than G+ve cells.
• Composed of lipopolysaccharides (LPS).
• LPS is a harmful substance classified as an endotoxin.
• Lipopolysaccharides, which acts as an endotoxin, are composed of
polysaccharides and lipid A (responsible for much of the toxicity of G-ve
bacteria).
• These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic susceptibility
• Ex: vancomycin can kill only Gram +ve bacteria and is ineffective against Gram -
ve pathogens, such as Haemophilus influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
51. • Cell wall
• If the bacterial cell wall is entirely removed, it is called a
protoplast while if it's partially removed, it is called a
spheroplast.
• Antibiotics such as penicillin inhibit the formation of
peptidoglycan cross-links in the bacterial cell wall.
• The enzyme lysozyme, found in human tears, also digests the
cell wall of bacteria and is the body‘s main defense against
eye infections.
52. CYTOPLASMICMEMBRANE
• The cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane is a thin ( 5 to 10
nm).
• It separates the cell wall and cytoplasm.
• It composed of phospholipids (20 to 30 %) and proteins (
60 to 70 %).
• Prokaryotic plasma membranes are less rigid than
eukaryotic membrane due to lack of sterols.
53. • The phospholipids molecules are arranged in two parallel rows, called a
phospholipid bilayer.
• Each phospholipid molecule contains a polar head & tail.
• Polar head composed of a phosphate group & glycerol.
• The non-polar tails are interior of the bilayer.
• numerous proteins moving within or upon this layer are primarily responsible for
transport of ions, nutrients and waste across the membrane.
54. Functions of cytoplasmic
membrane
• They including in transportation of
nutrients.
• It provides mechanical strength to the
bacterial cell.
• It helps in DNA replication.
• It contains the enzymes involved in
the biosynthesis ofmembrane lipids &
various macromolecules of the
bacterial cell wall.
55. Periplasmic space
• Gram-negative bacteria : space between the cytoplasmic
membrane and the cell wall and space found between cell wall and
the outer membrane
• Periplasm may constitute up to 40% of the total cell volume in G-ve
species.
• Gram-positive bacteria : space between the cytoplasmic
membrane and the cell wall.
• The periplasm is filled with water and proteins and is reminiscent of
the cytoplasm.
56. • However periplasm contains proteins
and other molecules distinct from those
in the cytoplasm because the membrane
prevents the free exchange between
these two compartments.
• Periplasmic proteins have various
functions in cellular processes including:
transport, degradation, and motility.
• Periplasm controls molecular traffic
entering and leaving the cell.
57. Cytoplasm
• Portion of the cell that lies within the PM
• substances within the plasma membrane, excluding the genetic material.
• Gel-like matrix composed of mostly water(4/5 th ), enzymes, nutrients,
wastes, and gases
• The bacterial cytoplasm is a suspension of organic, inorganic solutes in a
viscous water solution.
• The cytoplasm of bacteria differs from that of higher eukaryotic
microorganisms in not containing endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria and lysosomes.
58. • • It contains the ribosomes, proteins and other water soluble components and
reserve material.
• • In most bacterial, extrachromosal DNA ( plasmid DNA ) is also present.
• It is relatively featureless by electron microscope - although small granules can
be seen.
• • carries out very important functions for the cell - growth, metabolism, and
replication .
59. Constituents
• Proteins including enzymes
• Vitamins
• Ions
• Nucleic acids and their precursors
• Amino acids and their precursors
• Sugars, carbohydrates and their derivatives
• Fatty acids and their derivatives
60. Mesosomes
• Mesosomes are respiratory sites of bacteria.
• The mesosomes are attached to the bacterial chromosomes and is involved in DNA segregation
during cell division.
• They are predominant in Gram positive bacteria.
• In most of the bacteria, particularly in Gram-positive bacteria the growth condition depending
upon the membrane appears to be infolded at more than one point.
• Such infoldings are called mesosomes.
• Mesosomes presents in two types…
• In central (septal) mesosomes & peripheral (lateral) mesosomes
61. • Central mesosomes present deep into the
cytoplasm & locate near the middle of the
cell.
• These are involved in the DNA segregation &
in the formation of cross walls during cell
division.
• The peripheral mesosomes are not present
at central location & are not associated with
nuclear material.
• Mesosomes are also called as chondroids
& are visible only under electron
microscope.
• Larger numbers of mesosomes have a
62. Nucleoid
• Unlike the eukaryotic (true) cells, bacteria do not have a membrane enclosed
nucleus.
• The nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located.
• It is not a membrane bound nucleus, but simply an area of the cytoplasm where
the strands of DNA are found.
• The genome consists of a single molecule of double stranded DNA arrangement
in a circle.
• The bacterial chromosome is haploid & replicated by simple fission instead of
mitosis as in an eukaryotic cell.
63. Plasmids
• small extra-chromosomal DNA
• contain genes for antibiotic resistance or virulence.
• Structure Similar to most bacterial chromosomes, but considerably smaller.
• plasmids are covalently closed circular DNA
• In a few species linear plasmids have been found.
• Size : Chromosomal DNA is typically about 4000 kb,
• plasmid DNA ranges from 1-200 kb.
• • Number of plasmids: 1-700 copies of plasmid in a cell.
64. Plasmid Function
• The function of plasmids is not always known, but they are not normally
essential for survival of host, although their presence generally gives the host
some advantage.
• Antibiotic resistance - Some plasmids code for proteins that degrade
antibiotics-a big advantage for pathogens.
• Some encode for proteins which confer virulence factors on the host. For
example- E. coli plasmid Ent P307 codes for an enterotoxin which makes E.
coli pathogenic.
• Conjugative plasmids - These allow exchange of DNA between bacterial
cells.
65. • Plasmids and the associated traits can be transferred between bacteria, even
from one bacterial species to another.
• Plasmids are not involved in reproduction.
• Plasmids replicate independently of the chromosome.
• Plasmids are passed to other bacteria by two means.
• For most plasmid types, copies in the cytoplasm are passed on to daughter
cells during binary fission.
• Other types of plasmids ,form tube like structure at the surface called a pilus
that passes copies of the plasmid to other bacteria during conjugation, a
process by which bacteria exchange genetic information.
66. • Plasmids have been shown to be instrumental in the transmission of
special properties, such as antibiotic drug resistance, resistance to
heavy metals, and virulence factors necessary for infection of
animal or plant hosts.
• The ability to insert specific genes into plasmids have made them
extremely useful tools in the area of genetic engineering/RDNA
Technology
67. Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are most important structure in bacterial cytoplasm.
• They involved in protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes numbers varies with the rate of protein synthesis.
• If greater the number of ribosomes then the greater the protein synthesis.
• They have 200 Ao in diameter.
• They are characterised by their sedimentation properties.
68. • These bacterial ribosomes are called as 70 S ribosomes.
• S= svedberg unit..unit of sedimentation.
• After sedimentation carried in ultra-centrifuge & then placed
• in low concentration of magnesium that time 70 S ribosomes
• dissociated into 50 S & 30 S particles.
• Each 50 S particles contain…one molecule of 23 S RNA, one
• molecule of 5 S RNA & 32 different proteins.
• And, each 30 S particles contains…one molecule of 16 S RNA &
• 21 different proteins.
• During protein synthesis these ribosomes are associated with
• the m-RNA & such association are called polysomes
• This 70s ribosomes are made up of two subunits namely a large subunits 50s and a small subunit 30s.
• During active protein synthesis the ribosomes are associated with mRNA and such associations are called polysomes.
69. • They translate the genetic code from the molecular language of nucleic
• acid to that of amino acids—the building blocks of proteins.
• • Bacterial ribosomes are similar to those of eukaryotes, but are smaller and
• have a slightly different composition and molecular structure.
• • Bacterial ribosomes are never bound to other organelles as they
• sometimes are bound to the endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotes, but are
• free-standing structures distributed throughout the cytoplasm.
• • There are sufficient differences between bacterial ribosomes and eukaryotic ribosomes that some antibiotics will
inhibit the functioning of bacterial ribosomes, but not a eukaryote's, thus killing bacteria but not the eukaryotic
organisms they are infecting.
• • Streptomycin binds 70S ribosome and stops protein synthesis but it can not bind 80S ribosome of eukaryotes and
thereby eukaryotic cell remains unaffected.
70. Bacterial Chromosome - Genophore
• • The bacterial chromosome consists of a single,
• circle of deoxyribonucleic acid.
• • DNA is double stranded- two strands line up
• antiparrallel to each other and the bases are
• linked together with hydrogen bonds.
• • It includes most of the genetic material of the
• organism .
71. Inclusion bodies
• Inclusion bodies: Bacteria can have within their cytoplasm a variety of small
bodies collectively referred to as inclusion bodies.
• Some are called granules and other are called vesicles.
• Inclusions are considered to be nonliving components of the cell that do not
possess metabolic activity and are not bounded by membranes.
• The most common inclusions are glycogen, lipid droplets, crystals, and
pigments.
72. Inclusion bodies - Granules
• Granules: Densely compacted substances without a membrane covering.
• Nutrients and reserves may be stored in the cytoplasm in the form of glycogen,
lipids, polyphosphate, or in some cases, sulfur or nitrogen for later use.
• Each granule contains specific substances, such as glycogen (glucose
polymer) and polyphosphate (phosphate polymer, supplies energy to metabolic
processes).
• Sulfur bacteria contains reserve granules of sulfur.
• These granules are depleted in starvation
73. Inclusion bodies-vesicles
• Some aquatic photosynthetic bacteria and cyano bacteria have rigid gas-filled
vacuoles and it helps in floating at a certain level - allowing them to move up or
down into water layers with different light intensities and nutrient levels.
• Some magnetotactic bacterium, eg Aquaspirillium magnetotacticum , stores
Magnetitite (Ferric oxide).
• The presence of such magnetic inclusions enables these bacteria to responds to
magnetic fields.
74. Spores
• Many bacterial species produce spores inside the cell & outside the
cell.
• endospores Inside the spores are called & outside the spores are
called exospores. E.g Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis etc.
• Spores are extremely resistant to desiccation, staining, radiation,
disinfecting chemicals & heat.
• Each bacterial spore on germination forms a single vegetative cell.
75. • The process of endospore formation is known as sporulation and it
may take 4 to 8 hours in a vegetative cell.
• Endospores are thick-walled, highly refractile bodies that are
produced one per cell.
• They remain viable for long time & help bacteria to survive for long
period under unfavourable condition.
• Endospore can remain dormant for thousand of years.
• Spores of all medically important bacteria are destroyed by moist
heat sterilization ( autoclave ) at 121 °C for 20 minutes.
76. • All the endospores contain large
amount of DPA (dipicolinic acid).
• It occurs in combination with large
amount of calcium, which is present in
central part of the spore (core).
• Calcium & DPA complex play
important role in the heat resistant of
endospores.
• Endospores consists of a core or envelope or protoplast.
• In the core or protoplast consist of DNA & ribosomes, t-RNA &
enzymes.
• The spore envelop consist of the inner membrane, outer membrane,
cortex & spore coat.
• In some species have the outer layer called exosporium which bears
ridges & fold.
77. SPORULATION
• The process of endospore formation is known as
sporulation
• It may take 4 to 8 hrs in a vegetative cell.
• Sporulation process
• Firstly the bacterial chromosomes replicate
• A newly replicated bacterial chromosomes & small portion
of cytoplasm are isolated by an in growth of the plasma
membrane called a spore septum.
78. • The septum derived from the cytoplasmic membrane
• It is then formed by a process of invagination which divides
into a forespore & sporangium.
• The forespore is subsequently encircled by a dividing septum
as a double layered membrane.
• Between the two layers is laid a spore cortex & outer layer is
transformed into spore coat which consists of several layer.
• After formation of spore mother cell is lyses to release it