The state of equilibrium between proton donors and proton acceptors in the buffering system of the blood that is maintained at approximately pH 7.35 to 7.45 under normal conditions in arterial blood.
essential details on maintenance of extracellular fluid pH, Especially Blood for normal physiological function of the body and condition associated wit acid base imbalance
A review of ACID AND BASE: What's Acid and Base? what are the normal range and how the body can regulate? finally what will happen if there is error in maintaining acid base balance system
essential details on maintenance of extracellular fluid pH, Especially Blood for normal physiological function of the body and condition associated wit acid base imbalance
A review of ACID AND BASE: What's Acid and Base? what are the normal range and how the body can regulate? finally what will happen if there is error in maintaining acid base balance system
4. Renal Block-Acid Base Balance-for Medical students.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Acid–Base balance (also known as pH HOMEOSTASIS ) : one of the essential functions of the body, it is concerned with the precise regulation of free (unbound) hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids.
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7..pdfRubanjews
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7.45 that is slightly alkaline.
Any change in the normal value can cause marked alterations in the chemical reactions of the
cell.
The body has developed three mechanisms of defence to regulate or maintenance of blood pH or
acid-base balance.
1. Blood buffers
2. Respiratory mechanism.
3. Renal mechanism.
1. Blood buffers : Buffers are present both in the plasma and in the RBC\'s. The buffer cannot
remove H+ ion from the body, it temporarily acts as a shock absorbent to reduce the free H+
ions.
The blood consists of 3 buffer systems.
A. Bicarbonate buffer system : Sodium bicarbonate and carbonic acid (NaHCO3 - H2CO3) is the
most predominant buffer system of the extracellular fluid and plasma. At blood pH 7.4, the ratio
of carbonic acid is 20:1. Thus the bicarbonate concentration is much higher than carbonic acid in
the blood. This is referred to as alkali reserve and is responsible for the active buffering of h+
ions, generated by the body. The plasma bicarbonate [HCO3-] concentration is around 22-26
mmol/l. Carbonic acid is the solution of CO2 in water.
B. Phosphate buffer system: Sodium dihydrogen phosphate and disodium hydrogen phosphate
(NaH2PO4 - Na2HPO4) constitute the phosphate buffer. It is of less importance in plasma due to
its low concentration with a pk of 6.8, close to blood pH 7.4, the phosphate buffer would have
been more effective, had it been present in high concentration. It is estimated that the ratio of
base to acid fort phosphate buffer is 4, compared to 20 for bicarbonate buffer.
C. Protein buffer system : The plasma proteins and hemoglobin together constitute the protein
buffer system of blood. The buffering capacity of proteins is dependent on the Pk of ionizable
groups of amino acids. The imidazole group of histidine (Pk = 6.7) is the most effective
contributor of protein buffers. The plasma proteins account for about 2% of the total buffering
capacity of the plasma.Hemoglobin of RBC is also an important buffer. It mainly buffers the
fixed acid, besides being involved in the transport of gases (O2 and CO2).
2. Respiratory mechanism : Lungs are actually the most effective organs for rapid pH adjustment
or maintaining acid-base balance. About one-half of the H+ ions drained by the cells to the
extracellular fluids combine with HCO3- to form H2CO3, which disassociates into H2O and
CO2. The CO2 thus formed is subsequently eliminated by the lungs. So the elimination of one
molecule of CO2 means the removal of one H+ ion.
The rate of respiration is controlled by a respiratory center, located in the medulla of the brain,
highly sensitive to changes in the pH of blood. Any decrease in blood pH causes hyperventilation
to blow off CO2, there by reducing the H2CO3 concentration, simultaneously the H+ ions are
eliminated as H2O.
An increase in blood P (P - partial pressure) CO2 increases pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary
ventilation is also increased with slight incr.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) predicts that with, against, despite, and even without the global pandemic, the medical technology (MedTech) industry shows signs of continuous healthy growth, driven by smaller, faster, and cheaper devices, growing demand for home-based applications, technological innovation, strategic acquisitions, investments, and SPAC listings. MCG predicts that this should reflects itself in annual growth of over 6%, well beyond 2028.
According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
4. Renal Block-Acid Base Balance-for Medical students.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Acid–Base balance (also known as pH HOMEOSTASIS ) : one of the essential functions of the body, it is concerned with the precise regulation of free (unbound) hydrogen ion concentration in body fluids.
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7..pdfRubanjews
The normal pH of the blood is maintained the narrow range of 7.35-7.45 that is slightly alkaline.
Any change in the normal value can cause marked alterations in the chemical reactions of the
cell.
The body has developed three mechanisms of defence to regulate or maintenance of blood pH or
acid-base balance.
1. Blood buffers
2. Respiratory mechanism.
3. Renal mechanism.
1. Blood buffers : Buffers are present both in the plasma and in the RBC\'s. The buffer cannot
remove H+ ion from the body, it temporarily acts as a shock absorbent to reduce the free H+
ions.
The blood consists of 3 buffer systems.
A. Bicarbonate buffer system : Sodium bicarbonate and carbonic acid (NaHCO3 - H2CO3) is the
most predominant buffer system of the extracellular fluid and plasma. At blood pH 7.4, the ratio
of carbonic acid is 20:1. Thus the bicarbonate concentration is much higher than carbonic acid in
the blood. This is referred to as alkali reserve and is responsible for the active buffering of h+
ions, generated by the body. The plasma bicarbonate [HCO3-] concentration is around 22-26
mmol/l. Carbonic acid is the solution of CO2 in water.
B. Phosphate buffer system: Sodium dihydrogen phosphate and disodium hydrogen phosphate
(NaH2PO4 - Na2HPO4) constitute the phosphate buffer. It is of less importance in plasma due to
its low concentration with a pk of 6.8, close to blood pH 7.4, the phosphate buffer would have
been more effective, had it been present in high concentration. It is estimated that the ratio of
base to acid fort phosphate buffer is 4, compared to 20 for bicarbonate buffer.
C. Protein buffer system : The plasma proteins and hemoglobin together constitute the protein
buffer system of blood. The buffering capacity of proteins is dependent on the Pk of ionizable
groups of amino acids. The imidazole group of histidine (Pk = 6.7) is the most effective
contributor of protein buffers. The plasma proteins account for about 2% of the total buffering
capacity of the plasma.Hemoglobin of RBC is also an important buffer. It mainly buffers the
fixed acid, besides being involved in the transport of gases (O2 and CO2).
2. Respiratory mechanism : Lungs are actually the most effective organs for rapid pH adjustment
or maintaining acid-base balance. About one-half of the H+ ions drained by the cells to the
extracellular fluids combine with HCO3- to form H2CO3, which disassociates into H2O and
CO2. The CO2 thus formed is subsequently eliminated by the lungs. So the elimination of one
molecule of CO2 means the removal of one H+ ion.
The rate of respiration is controlled by a respiratory center, located in the medulla of the brain,
highly sensitive to changes in the pH of blood. Any decrease in blood pH causes hyperventilation
to blow off CO2, there by reducing the H2CO3 concentration, simultaneously the H+ ions are
eliminated as H2O.
An increase in blood P (P - partial pressure) CO2 increases pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary
ventilation is also increased with slight incr.
Concepts of acid base balance and its disorders are very important for practice of medicine.It is for the benefit of medical and students of allied fields.
Medical Technology Tackles New Health Care Demand - Research Report - March 2...pchutichetpong
M Capital Group (“MCG”) predicts that with, against, despite, and even without the global pandemic, the medical technology (MedTech) industry shows signs of continuous healthy growth, driven by smaller, faster, and cheaper devices, growing demand for home-based applications, technological innovation, strategic acquisitions, investments, and SPAC listings. MCG predicts that this should reflects itself in annual growth of over 6%, well beyond 2028.
According to Chris Mouchabhani, Managing Partner at M Capital Group, “Despite all economic scenarios that one may consider, beyond overall economic shocks, medical technology should remain one of the most promising and robust sectors over the short to medium term and well beyond 2028.”
There is a movement towards home-based care for the elderly, next generation scanning and MRI devices, wearable technology, artificial intelligence incorporation, and online connectivity. Experts also see a focus on predictive, preventive, personalized, participatory, and precision medicine, with rising levels of integration of home care and technological innovation.
The average cost of treatment has been rising across the board, creating additional financial burdens to governments, healthcare providers and insurance companies. According to MCG, cost-per-inpatient-stay in the United States alone rose on average annually by over 13% between 2014 to 2021, leading MedTech to focus research efforts on optimized medical equipment at lower price points, whilst emphasizing portability and ease of use. Namely, 46% of the 1,008 medical technology companies in the 2021 MedTech Innovator (“MTI”) database are focusing on prevention, wellness, detection, or diagnosis, signaling a clear push for preventive care to also tackle costs.
In addition, there has also been a lasting impact on consumer and medical demand for home care, supported by the pandemic. Lockdowns, closure of care facilities, and healthcare systems subjected to capacity pressure, accelerated demand away from traditional inpatient care. Now, outpatient care solutions are driving industry production, with nearly 70% of recent diagnostics start-up companies producing products in areas such as ambulatory clinics, at-home care, and self-administered diagnostics.
How many patients does case series should have In comparison to case reports.pdfpubrica101
Pubrica’s team of researchers and writers create scientific and medical research articles, which may be important resources for authors and practitioners. Pubrica medical writers assist you in creating and revising the introduction by alerting the reader to gaps in the chosen study subject. Our professionals understand the order in which the hypothesis topic is followed by the broad subject, the issue, and the backdrop.
https://pubrica.com/academy/case-study-or-series/how-many-patients-does-case-series-should-have-in-comparison-to-case-reports/
The dimensions of healthcare quality refer to various attributes or aspects that define the standard of healthcare services. These dimensions are used to evaluate, measure, and improve the quality of care provided to patients. A comprehensive understanding of these dimensions ensures that healthcare systems can address various aspects of patient care effectively and holistically. Dimensions of Healthcare Quality and Performance of care include the following; Appropriateness, Availability, Competence, Continuity, Effectiveness, Efficiency, Efficacy, Prevention, Respect and Care, Safety as well as Timeliness.
COVID-19 PCR tests remain a critical component of safe and responsible travel in 2024. They ensure compliance with international travel regulations, help detect and control the spread of new variants, protect vulnerable populations, and provide peace of mind. As we continue to navigate the complexities of global travel during the pandemic, PCR testing stands as a key measure to keep everyone safe and healthy. Whether you are planning a business trip, a family vacation, or an international adventure, incorporating PCR testing into your travel plans is a prudent and necessary step. Visit us at https://www.globaltravelclinics.com/
Global launch of the Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index 2nd wave – alongside...ILC- UK
The Healthy Ageing and Prevention Index is an online tool created by ILC that ranks countries on six metrics including, life span, health span, work span, income, environmental performance, and happiness. The Index helps us understand how well countries have adapted to longevity and inform decision makers on what must be done to maximise the economic benefits that comes with living well for longer.
Alongside the 77th World Health Assembly in Geneva on 28 May 2024, we launched the second version of our Index, allowing us to track progress and give new insights into what needs to be done to keep populations healthier for longer.
The speakers included:
Professor Orazio Schillaci, Minister of Health, Italy
Dr Hans Groth, Chairman of the Board, World Demographic & Ageing Forum
Professor Ilona Kickbusch, Founder and Chair, Global Health Centre, Geneva Graduate Institute and co-chair, World Health Summit Council
Dr Natasha Azzopardi Muscat, Director, Country Health Policies and Systems Division, World Health Organisation EURO
Dr Marta Lomazzi, Executive Manager, World Federation of Public Health Associations
Dr Shyam Bishen, Head, Centre for Health and Healthcare and Member of the Executive Committee, World Economic Forum
Dr Karin Tegmark Wisell, Director General, Public Health Agency of Sweden
CHAPTER 1 SEMESTER V - ROLE OF PEADIATRIC NURSE.pdfSachin Sharma
Pediatric nurses play a vital role in the health and well-being of children. Their responsibilities are wide-ranging, and their objectives can be categorized into several key areas:
1. Direct Patient Care:
Objective: Provide comprehensive and compassionate care to infants, children, and adolescents in various healthcare settings (hospitals, clinics, etc.).
This includes tasks like:
Monitoring vital signs and physical condition.
Administering medications and treatments.
Performing procedures as directed by doctors.
Assisting with daily living activities (bathing, feeding).
Providing emotional support and pain management.
2. Health Promotion and Education:
Objective: Promote healthy behaviors and educate children, families, and communities about preventive healthcare.
This includes tasks like:
Administering vaccinations.
Providing education on nutrition, hygiene, and development.
Offering breastfeeding and childbirth support.
Counseling families on safety and injury prevention.
3. Collaboration and Advocacy:
Objective: Collaborate effectively with doctors, social workers, therapists, and other healthcare professionals to ensure coordinated care for children.
Objective: Advocate for the rights and best interests of their patients, especially when children cannot speak for themselves.
This includes tasks like:
Communicating effectively with healthcare teams.
Identifying and addressing potential risks to child welfare.
Educating families about their child's condition and treatment options.
4. Professional Development and Research:
Objective: Stay up-to-date on the latest advancements in pediatric healthcare through continuing education and research.
Objective: Contribute to improving the quality of care for children by participating in research initiatives.
This includes tasks like:
Attending workshops and conferences on pediatric nursing.
Participating in clinical trials related to child health.
Implementing evidence-based practices into their daily routines.
By fulfilling these objectives, pediatric nurses play a crucial role in ensuring the optimal health and well-being of children throughout all stages of their development.
PET CT beginners Guide covers some of the underrepresented topics in PET CTMiadAlsulami
This lecture briefly covers some of the underrepresented topics in Molecular imaging with cases , such as:
- Primary pleural tumors and pleural metastases.
- Distinguishing between MPM and Talc Pleurodesis.
- Urological tumors.
- The role of FDG PET in NET.
Trauma Outpatient Center is a comprehensive facility dedicated to addressing mental health challenges and providing medication-assisted treatment. We offer a diverse range of services aimed at assisting individuals in overcoming addiction, mental health disorders, and related obstacles. Our team consists of seasoned professionals who are both experienced and compassionate, committed to delivering the highest standard of care to our clients. By utilizing evidence-based treatment methods, we strive to help our clients achieve their goals and lead healthier, more fulfilling lives.
Our mission is to provide a safe and supportive environment where our clients can receive the highest quality of care. We are dedicated to assisting our clients in reaching their objectives and improving their overall well-being. We prioritize our clients' needs and individualize treatment plans to ensure they receive tailored care. Our approach is rooted in evidence-based practices proven effective in treating addiction and mental health disorders.
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2. INTRODUCTION
ACID
Any compound which forms H⁺ ions in a solution.
A proton donor.
E. g: Carbonic acid releases H⁺ ions
Strong acid: Ionizes freely, gives up most of its hydrogen ions, and can markedly
lower the pH of a solution, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Weak acid: ionizes only slightly and keeps most hydrogen in a chemically bound
form that does not affect pH, such as carbonic acid (H2CO3).
3. BASE
Any compound which combines with H⁺ ions in a solution.
A proton acceptor.
E. g: Bicarbonate(HCO3⁻) accepts H+ ions.
Strong base: such as the hydroxyl ion (OH) has a strong tendency to bind H and
raise the pH. E. g Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
Weak base: such as the bicarbonate ion (HCO3) binds less of the available H
and has less effect on pH. E. g Ammonia (NH3).
4. ACID- BASE BALANCE
The state of equilibrium between proton donors and proton acceptors in the
buffering system of the blood that is maintained at approximately pH 7.35 to 7.45
under normal conditions in arterial blood.
BUFFER:
It is any mechanism that resists changes in pH by converting a strong acid or
base to a weak one.
5. Relative
concentration
[H+]
[OH–]
Acidic Alkaline (basic)
Neutral
(a) In chemistry
pH
0 7.0 14
6.8 8.0
Venous blood Arterial blood
Death Acidosis Alkalosis
Normal
Average
pH range compatible with life
(b) In the body
7.5 7.9
6.9 7. 7.3
8.0
6.8
6.8 8.0
7.0 7.1 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.7 7.8
Death
6. ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS IN THE BODY
The pH of arterial blood is normally 7.45 and the pH of venous blood is 7.35, for an
average blood pH of 7.4. The pH of venous blood is slightly lower (more acidic) than
that of arterial blood because H1 is generated by the formation of H2CO3 from CO2
picked up at the tissue capillaries.
Acidosis exists whenever blood pH falls below 7.35, whereas alkalosis occurs when
blood pH is above 7.45.
7. THREE LINES OF DEFENSE AGAINST
CHANGES IN [H+]
There are three primary systems that regulate the H+ concentration in the body fluids
to prevent acidosis or alkalosis.
1. The chemical buffer systems.
2. The respiratory mechanism.
3. The renal mechanism.
8. The Chemical Acid-Base
Buffer Systems
The body fluids, which immediately combine with acid or base to prevent
excessive changes in H+ concentration. Buffer systems do not eliminate H+ from
or add them to the body but only keep them tied up until balance can be
reestablished. The body has four buffer systems.
1. The Carbonic acid–bicarbonate (H2CO3:HCO3) buffer pair system.
2. The Phosphate buffer system.
3. The Protein buffer system.
4. The Hemoglobin buffer system.
9. The Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate
Buffer System
The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system is a solution of carbonic acid and
bicarbonate ions.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) forms by the hydration of carbon dioxide and then
dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3) and H+.
This is a reversible reaction. When it proceeds to the right, carbonic acid acts
as a weak acid by releasing H and lowering pH. When the reaction proceeds to the
left, bicarbonate acts as a weak base by binding H, removing the ions from
solution, and raising pH.
11. The Phosphate Buffer System
◦ The phosphate buffer system is a solution which consists of an acid phosphate salt (NaH2PO4) and a basic
phosphate salt (Na2HPO4).
◦ The following reaction can proceed to the right to liberate H and lower pH, or it can proceed to the left to
bind H and raise pH. Basically, this buffer pair can alternately switch a H+ for a Na+ as demanded by the
[H+]
Na2HPO4 + H+ ⇆ NaH2PO4 + Na+
◦ The phosphate buffer system has a stronger buffering effect than an equal amount of bicarbonate buffer.
◦ However, phosphates are much less concentrated in the ECF than bicarbonate, so they are less important in
buffering the ECF.
12. The Protein Buffer System
◦ Proteins are excellent buffers because they contain both acidic and basic groups and are
abundant in ICF.
◦ The protein buffer system accounts for about three-quarters of all chemical buffering ability
of the body fluids.
◦ Some have carboxyl (–COOH) side groups, which release H when pH begins to rise and thus
lower pH:
◦ Others have amino (–NH2) side groups, which bind H when pH falls too low, thus raising pH
toward normal:
13. The Hemoglobin Buffer System
Hemoglobin (Hb) buffers the H+ generated from metabolically produced CO2 in transit
between the tissues and the lungs. At the systemic capillary level, CO2 continuously diffuses
into the blood from the tissue cells where it is being produced.
Most H+ generated from CO2 at the tissue level becomes bound to reduced Hb.
The venous blood is only slightly more acidic than arterial blood despite the large volume of
H+ generating CO2 carried in venous blood. At the lungs, the reactions are reversed and the
resulting CO2 is exhaled.
14. The Respiratory Mechanism
◦ Respiratory systems regulate [H+] through adjustments in pulmonary
ventilation.
◦ When arterial [H+] increases in air breathers, the respiratory center is stimulated
to increase pulmonary ventilation.
With increased CO2 excretion, less H2CO3 is added to body fluids and H+
decreases
◦ When arterial [H+] decreases, ventilation is reduced and breathing is also slow.
Metabolically produced CO2 is added to the blood to increase acid
production
15. The Renal Mechanism
Excretory system is the third line of defense of acid-base balance.
◦ Both [H+] and [HCO3
–] are regulated
◦ Require hours to days to compensate
16. Hydrogen Ion Excretion
Filtration rate of H+ is very low.
H+ is secreted by primary active transport and by secondary Na+/H+ anti porters
in the proximal tubule.
Type A intercalated cells in the distal and collecting tubules are H+-
secreting, HCO3
–-reabsorbing, K+-reabsorbing cells.
◦ Active at normal pH and during acidosis.
Type B intercalated cells are HCO3
–-secreting, H+- reabsorbing, K+-
secreting cells.
◦ More active during alkalosis.
18. Disorders in Acid-Base Balance
Acid-base imbalances fall into two categories.
1. Respiratory (When CO2 is increased or decreased)
Acidosis
Alkalosis
2. Metabolic (When HCO3 is increased or decreased)
Acidosis
Alkalosis
20. Respiratory Acidosis
When pH becomes lower than 7.35 and CO2 increases more than 45 mmHg it
result in respiratory acidosis.
It occurs when the rate of alveolar ventilation decreases.
Carbon dioxide accumulates in the ECF and lowers its pH.
21. Respiratory Alkalosis
When pH becomes greater than 7.35 and CO2 decreases less than 35 mmHg it
result in respiratory alkalosis.
Respiratory alkalosis results from hyperventilation, in which CO2 is eliminated
faster than it is produced.
22. Metabolic Acidosis
When pH becomes less than 7.35 and HCO3 decreases less than 22 mEq it
result in Metabolic acidosis.
It can result from increased production of organic acids, such as lactic acid in
anaerobic fermentation and ketone bodies in alcoholism and diabetes mellitus.
It can also result from the ingestion of acidic drugs such as aspirin or from the
loss of base due to chronic diarrhea.
23. Metabolic Alkalosis
When pH becomes greater than 7.45 and HCO3 increases more than 24 mEq it
result in Metabolic alkalosis.
It is rare but can result from overuse of bicarbonates (such as oral antacids and
intravenous bicarbonate solutions).
From the loss of stomach acid by chronic vomiting.
24. Renal response to acidosis:
◦ When [H+] is elevated, proximal tubular cells and Type A intercalated cells secrete more H+
◦ Filtration of HCO3
– decreases; new HCO3
– enters the plasma to buffer excess H+
Renal response to alkalosis:
◦ When [H+] is low, Type B intercalated cells increase H+ reabsorption
◦ More HCO3
– is filtered; Type B intercalated cells secrete HCO3
– into the urine