This document analyzes suitable field workdays for tillage operations in selected areas of Kaduna State, Nigeria based on soil moisture and rainfall criteria. Soil and 30 years of climate data were collected from the study areas. Soil moisture budgets were developed using a computer program to track daily soil moisture levels based on rainfall, evapotranspiration, runoff and percolation. Tractability criteria were established for each soil type based on moisture levels at field capacity and plastic limits. Out of 214 potential crop growing days, sandy-clay-loam soil had the most suitable tillage workdays at 76 days, while clay soil had the fewest at 49 days. The study provides information to help farmers plan machinery operations
Temporospatial analysis of agricultural systems at regional watershed levelDavide Rizzo
Agriculture is challenged by large scale issues, such as the impacts of wide land system changes on environmental resources, urging agronomy to evolve. Landscape agronomy emerged as a new perspective to address these issues through spatially-explicit modeling of the interactions between farming practices and natural resources at the landscape level (Benoit, Rizzo et al. 2012 http://bit.ly/LAabstract). In this study we aimed at characterizing agricultural systems focusing major crop sequences and the related fertilization practices to so as to map the potential pressure on water quality.We used 30 years of data to characterize the Meuse and Moselle watersheds (northeastern France).
_______________
suggested citation: Rizzo D, Godfroy G, Benoît M (2014) Temporospatial analysis of agricultural systems at regional watershed level: 30 years of data to characterize the Meuse and Moselle watersheds, France. 13th Congress of the European Society for Agronomy, Session 5: farming system design. Debrecen (Hungary). http://bit.ly/1oG0vI2
Linking satellite imagery and crop modeling for integrated assessment of clim...ICRISAT
Crop simulation models are valuable tools for evaluating potential effects of environmental, biological and management factors on crop growth and developments. These models need to be applied at larger scales in order to be economically useful so that the effects of various alternate management strategies across the watershed or the region could be analyzed. Linking crop models with Remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) have demonstrated a strong feasibility of crop modeling applications at a spatial scale.
Remote sensing is the acquiring of information from a distance and also the art and science of making measurements of the earth using airborne- or satellite-based sensors, is used in GIS. GIS is a collection of computer-based tools for organizing information from a variety of data sources to map and examine changes on Earth. Global Positioning System or GPS is a space-based radio navigation system that helps pinpoint a three-dimensional position to about a meter of accuracy (for example latitude, longitude and altitude) and provide nano-second precise time anywhere on Earth.
Land Use Land Cover Change Detection of Gulbarga City Using Remote Sensing an...ijsrd.com
Land use and land cover(LULC) recently these days became a major component to handle natural resources and managing changes occurring in the environment.which is due to expansion of the urban area it has lead to critical losses of agriculture land,vegetation land and water bodies.followed by this the urban sprawl created a environmental issues. For example :decreased air quality and increase in the temperature etc. Land use and land cover change is driven by human actions and also drives changes that limit availability of products and services for human and animals, and it can undermine ecological wellbeing also. Land use and land cover is an important component in understanding various interactions of the human activities with the environment and thus it is necessary to be able to simulate changes. Therefore, this study was aimed at understanding land use and land cover change in Gulbarga city. In this work we took Gulbarga city to study the urban expansion and LULC change that took place in 2001 and 2012 to know the changes happened in the year 2012 by comparing with data of 2001.remote sensing methodology is used in this study which provides major coverage mapping & classification of land cover features such as vegetation,soil,water,forest etc. A wide range of environmental parameters can be measured including the land use, vegetation types, surface temperatures , soil types, precipitation, phytoplankton, turbidity, surface elevation and geology.satellite images of two different years i.e 2001 and 2012 are taken in to consideration.after image processing classification is done so as to classify images in to various different land use categories.
Temporospatial analysis of agricultural systems at regional watershed levelDavide Rizzo
Agriculture is challenged by large scale issues, such as the impacts of wide land system changes on environmental resources, urging agronomy to evolve. Landscape agronomy emerged as a new perspective to address these issues through spatially-explicit modeling of the interactions between farming practices and natural resources at the landscape level (Benoit, Rizzo et al. 2012 http://bit.ly/LAabstract). In this study we aimed at characterizing agricultural systems focusing major crop sequences and the related fertilization practices to so as to map the potential pressure on water quality.We used 30 years of data to characterize the Meuse and Moselle watersheds (northeastern France).
_______________
suggested citation: Rizzo D, Godfroy G, Benoît M (2014) Temporospatial analysis of agricultural systems at regional watershed level: 30 years of data to characterize the Meuse and Moselle watersheds, France. 13th Congress of the European Society for Agronomy, Session 5: farming system design. Debrecen (Hungary). http://bit.ly/1oG0vI2
Linking satellite imagery and crop modeling for integrated assessment of clim...ICRISAT
Crop simulation models are valuable tools for evaluating potential effects of environmental, biological and management factors on crop growth and developments. These models need to be applied at larger scales in order to be economically useful so that the effects of various alternate management strategies across the watershed or the region could be analyzed. Linking crop models with Remote sensing and Geographical Information System (GIS) have demonstrated a strong feasibility of crop modeling applications at a spatial scale.
Remote sensing is the acquiring of information from a distance and also the art and science of making measurements of the earth using airborne- or satellite-based sensors, is used in GIS. GIS is a collection of computer-based tools for organizing information from a variety of data sources to map and examine changes on Earth. Global Positioning System or GPS is a space-based radio navigation system that helps pinpoint a three-dimensional position to about a meter of accuracy (for example latitude, longitude and altitude) and provide nano-second precise time anywhere on Earth.
Land Use Land Cover Change Detection of Gulbarga City Using Remote Sensing an...ijsrd.com
Land use and land cover(LULC) recently these days became a major component to handle natural resources and managing changes occurring in the environment.which is due to expansion of the urban area it has lead to critical losses of agriculture land,vegetation land and water bodies.followed by this the urban sprawl created a environmental issues. For example :decreased air quality and increase in the temperature etc. Land use and land cover change is driven by human actions and also drives changes that limit availability of products and services for human and animals, and it can undermine ecological wellbeing also. Land use and land cover is an important component in understanding various interactions of the human activities with the environment and thus it is necessary to be able to simulate changes. Therefore, this study was aimed at understanding land use and land cover change in Gulbarga city. In this work we took Gulbarga city to study the urban expansion and LULC change that took place in 2001 and 2012 to know the changes happened in the year 2012 by comparing with data of 2001.remote sensing methodology is used in this study which provides major coverage mapping & classification of land cover features such as vegetation,soil,water,forest etc. A wide range of environmental parameters can be measured including the land use, vegetation types, surface temperatures , soil types, precipitation, phytoplankton, turbidity, surface elevation and geology.satellite images of two different years i.e 2001 and 2012 are taken in to consideration.after image processing classification is done so as to classify images in to various different land use categories.
LAND USE /LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND CHANGE DETECTION USING GEOGRAPHICAL I...IAEME Publication
Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. Geographical information system and image processing techniques used for the analysis of land use/land cover and change detection of Sukhana Basin of Aurangabad District, Maharashtra state. The tools used ArcGIS10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE9.1, landsat images of 1996, 2003and 2014. From land use / land cover change detection it is found that during 1996-2014, water bodies cover have loss of 4 Sq. Km. Barren land have 146 Sq.Km. loss and forest area with 96 Sq.Km. loss. It is found that urbanization area has gain of 51 Sq.Km. and agricultural land cover also have gain of 195 Sq.Km.
Influence of land use land cover in simulating the thunderstorm event using ...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
precise weed management is very useful under large land holdings which reduces cost of cultivation to a greater extent. remote sensing plays a major role in site specific weed management
Land Use / Land Cover Classification of kanniykumari Coast, Tamilnadu, India....IJERA Editor
The land use/ land cover details of Kanniyakuamri coast which is Located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu (India) is studied. Satellite imagery is used to identify the Land use/ Land cover status of the study area. The software like ERDAS and Arc GIS are used to demarcate the land use / Land cover features of Kanniyakuamari coast. Remote sensing and GIS provided consistent and accurate base line information than many of the conventional surveys employed for such a task. The total area of Kanniyakumari coast is 715 sq.km. The land use / land cover classes of the study area has been categorized into thirteen such as Plantation, Sandy area, Water logged area, Scrub forest, Crop Land, Water bodies, Land with scrub, Reserve forest, Land without Scrub, Salt area, Beach Ridge, Settlement and Fallow land on the basis NRSA Classifications. Among these categories, land with scrub land is predominantly found all over the study area, It is occupied about 336.36 sq.km (44.61 percent), Crop Land 273.82 sq.km(38.29 percent), water bodies lands sharing about 20.44 sq.km (2.85 percent ), settlement occupied with 6.96 sq.km (0.97 percent), and Fallow land was occupied 13.98 sq.km ( 1.95 percent ).
The present study focuses on the nature and pattern of urban expansion of Madurai city over its surrounding region during the period from 2003 to 2008. Based on its proximity to the Madurai city, Preparation of various thematic data such Land use and Land cover using Land sat data. Create a land use land cover map from satellite imagery using supervised classification. Find out the areas from the classified data. The study is based on secondary data, the satellite imagery has downloaded from GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) web site, for the study area (path101 row 67), the downloaded imagery subset using Imagery software to clip the study area. The clipped satellite imagery has used to prepare the land use and land cover map using supervised classification.
LAND USE /LAND COVER CLASSIFICATION AND CHANGE DETECTION USING GEOGRAPHICAL I...IAEME Publication
Land use and land cover change has become a central component in current strategies for managing natural resources and monitoring environmental changes. Geographical information system and image processing techniques used for the analysis of land use/land cover and change detection of Sukhana Basin of Aurangabad District, Maharashtra state. The tools used ArcGIS10.1 and ERDAS IMAGINE9.1, landsat images of 1996, 2003and 2014. From land use / land cover change detection it is found that during 1996-2014, water bodies cover have loss of 4 Sq. Km. Barren land have 146 Sq.Km. loss and forest area with 96 Sq.Km. loss. It is found that urbanization area has gain of 51 Sq.Km. and agricultural land cover also have gain of 195 Sq.Km.
Influence of land use land cover in simulating the thunderstorm event using ...eSAT Publishing House
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
precise weed management is very useful under large land holdings which reduces cost of cultivation to a greater extent. remote sensing plays a major role in site specific weed management
Land Use / Land Cover Classification of kanniykumari Coast, Tamilnadu, India....IJERA Editor
The land use/ land cover details of Kanniyakuamri coast which is Located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu (India) is studied. Satellite imagery is used to identify the Land use/ Land cover status of the study area. The software like ERDAS and Arc GIS are used to demarcate the land use / Land cover features of Kanniyakuamari coast. Remote sensing and GIS provided consistent and accurate base line information than many of the conventional surveys employed for such a task. The total area of Kanniyakumari coast is 715 sq.km. The land use / land cover classes of the study area has been categorized into thirteen such as Plantation, Sandy area, Water logged area, Scrub forest, Crop Land, Water bodies, Land with scrub, Reserve forest, Land without Scrub, Salt area, Beach Ridge, Settlement and Fallow land on the basis NRSA Classifications. Among these categories, land with scrub land is predominantly found all over the study area, It is occupied about 336.36 sq.km (44.61 percent), Crop Land 273.82 sq.km(38.29 percent), water bodies lands sharing about 20.44 sq.km (2.85 percent ), settlement occupied with 6.96 sq.km (0.97 percent), and Fallow land was occupied 13.98 sq.km ( 1.95 percent ).
The present study focuses on the nature and pattern of urban expansion of Madurai city over its surrounding region during the period from 2003 to 2008. Based on its proximity to the Madurai city, Preparation of various thematic data such Land use and Land cover using Land sat data. Create a land use land cover map from satellite imagery using supervised classification. Find out the areas from the classified data. The study is based on secondary data, the satellite imagery has downloaded from GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) web site, for the study area (path101 row 67), the downloaded imagery subset using Imagery software to clip the study area. The clipped satellite imagery has used to prepare the land use and land cover map using supervised classification.
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE CONTENT, BULK DENSITY AND TRACTOR FORWARD SPEEDS ON ENERG...IAEME Publication
Energy requirement in tillage operations plays a vital role in agricultural mechanization. This hardly comes by since much drudgery is still applied in farming operation in respect to mechanization. This research was conducted at National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI) Experimental Farm, Umudike Umuahia, Abia State of Nigeria. Three different tractor forward speeds of 1.94 m/s, 2.22 m/s and 2.5 m/s were employed to determine the needed energy requirements in the ploughing operations. It was observed that total energy expended on ploughing were 36,722.34 KJ, 55,173.61 KJ and 69,464.82 KJ respectively. The results indicated that energy decreased with increase in moisture content level db% and increased with increase in bulk density at various forward speeds. This follows the sloping and rising up of the graphs as the moisture content levels (db %) and bulk density (g/cm3) increased, with highest coefficient of determination R2 = 0.698 at tractor forward speed of 1.94 m/s. The result revealed that energy increased as the tractor forward speeds increased with mean energy values of 1,836.12 KJ, 2,758.58 KJ and 3,637.13 KJ. The highest energy was expended at tractor forward speed of 2.5 m/s. It was clear that the ploughing at tractor forward speed of 1.94 m/s requires less energy. Therefore, 1.94 m/s tractor forward speed is preferred to ploughing operation
Sensitivity of AERMOD to Meteorological Data Sets Based on Varying Surface Ro...BREEZE Software
The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the sensitivity of the AERMOD3 Model in modeling identical sources with meteorological data sets derived using both airport and industrial site land use characteristics.
International Journal of Engineering Research and Development (IJERD)IJERD Editor
call for paper 2012, hard copy of journal, research paper publishing, where to publish research paper,
journal publishing, how to publish research paper, Call For research paper, international journal, publishing a paper, IJERD, journal of science and technology, how to get a research paper published, publishing a paper, publishing of journal, publishing of research paper, reserach and review articles, IJERD Journal, How to publish your research paper, publish research paper, open access engineering journal, Engineering journal, Mathemetics journal, Physics journal, Chemistry journal, Computer Engineering, Computer Science journal, how to submit your paper, peer reviw journal, indexed journal, reserach and review articles, engineering journal, www.ijerd.com, research journals,
yahoo journals, bing journals, International Journal of Engineering Research and Development, google journals, hard copy of journal
DRAUGHT FORCE REQUIREMENTS OF A DISC PLOUGH AT VARIOUS TRACTOR FORWARD SPEEDS...IAEME Publication
Tillage operation in loamy sand soil for disc ploughing on an experimental plot of twenty different soil moisture levels at tractor forward speeds of 1.94 m/s, 2.2 m/s and 2.5 m/s were conducted using trace tractor techniques. The variables: draw-bar pull force, moisture content, cone index, tractor forward speeds, widths of cut and depths of cut were measured. In determining the effect of moisture content and forward speeds on draught forces, results revealed that at lowest moisture content of 1.53% draught forces of 4688.33 N, 5708.33 N and 6758.33 N at tractor forward speeds of 1.94 m/s, 2.2 m/s and 2.5 m/s, were obtained. The draught forces of 3008.32 N, 4018.66 N and 5068.os33 N were obtained at highest moisture content of 24.14% with tractor forward speeds of 1.94 m/s, 2.2 m/s and 2.5 m/s. The tractor forward speeds of 2.5 m/s recorded the highest draught force of 6758.33 N. The lowest draught forces at respective moisture levels were obtained at tractor forward speed of 1.94 m/s. It is clear that, draught forces increase with increase in tractor forward speeds. This result indicates that the best tractor forward speed for ploughing operation is 2.5 m/s which took place within the range of the optimum soil moisture of 2.5–25% for soil under consideration
AERMOD Sensitivity to AERSURFACE Moisture Conditions and Temporal ResolutionBREEZE Software
This study reviews AERMOD-predicted concentrations for several hypothetical sources at
locations throughout the United States. An analysis of the sensitivity of the AERSURFACE.
Evaluation of Irrigation Application Efficiency: Case Study of Chanchaga Irri...AZOJETE UNIMAID
Water is an integral issue needed to attain the desired targets but good quality water for irrigation purpose is gradually become scarce. The seasonal nature of rainfall can give rise to water stress at critical periods of growth. This research attempts to evaluate the irrigation application efficiency of Chanchaga irrigation scheme, Minna, Niger state. A hand auger was used to bore to a desired depth to remove samples of the moist soil. Samples of the moist soil removed was placed in a can, covered and taken to the laboratory. The specific gravity (apparent) of the soil particle and the depth of water applied were determined using volumetric method, water application efficiency is determined using Gravimetric Method of Soil Moisture Content (Pw) Determination. The moisture content of the field after irrigation water is applied falls between the ranges of 51.1% and 51.5%, with an average of 51.28%, in this case the average amount of water applied is about 4.68%, this shows a little increase in the moisture content of the soil in the field. It was concluded that the efficiency of water application obtained is adequate and a good result considering the available management practice in terms of system operation, monitoring and evaluation.
Yield Forecasting to Sustain the Agricultural Transportation UnderStochastic ...IJRESJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Agricultural transportation is a major part of the United States’ transportation systems. This system follows a complex multimodal network consisting of highway, railway, and waterways which are mostly based on the yield of the agricultural commodities and their market values. The yield of agricultural commodities is dependent on stochastic environment such as weather conditions, rainfall, soil type and natural disasters. Different techniques such as leaf growth index, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and regression analysis are used to forecast the yield for the end of harvest season. The yield forecasting techniques are used to predict the agricultural transportation needs and improve the cost minimization. This study provides a model for yield forecasting using NDVI data, Geographical Information System (GIS), and statistical analysis. A case study is presented to demonstrate this model with a novel tool for collecting NDVI data.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
2. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
42
workdays were based on soil-moisture balance and tractability condition. Several models were
developed and they were similar in that soil moisture was tracked and some critical soil moisture
conditions were set to determine whether a given field operation could be performed on a given day
(Griffin, 2009; Edward and Hannah, 2007; Rotz and Harrigan, 2005; and Gwarzo, 1990). Rotz and
Harrigan (2005) reported that the approach for determining suitable workdays is the use of soil moisture
limits and some critical soil moisture conditions set to determine whether a given field operation could
be performed on a given day. The critical moisture levels were expressed in relation to the water-
holding-capacity of the soil zone.
The suitable day’s computer model was developed for use as a component of the integrated farm system
model. This model follows the similar approach to that used in model developed in 1970s (Dyer and
Bair, 1979). Gwarzo (1990) gave a report on suitable workdays in the Mokwa area of Niger state,
Nigeria and the suitable days for field work were determined on a daily time step based on soil moisture,
rainfall amount and tractability criteria. A BASIC computer programme developed was used to
segregate the good and bad days for field work. The segregation was done taking into account
information with respect to daily precipitation, existing weather conditions and soil moisture
relationship. Hassan and Broughton (1975) used soil moisture as criterion to determine the suitability of
field conditions for machine operations at MacDonald College Farm in the St-Lawrence low lands,
United State of America. Soil moisture measurements were conducted and three different soil textures
were considered-fine sandy loam, clay loam and clay. All three sites were sampled daily from June 7 to
June 15 for soil moisture determinations. The measured soil moisture was averaged for six samples of
the top zone.
Based on the above studies on suitable time for field operations it is obvious that weather conditions
may place severe constraints on the time available for carrying out field operations during the
agricultural production (Cevdet and Ibrahim, 2011). Specifically, in the selected areas of this study,
frequent machinery breakdown and general poor utilization due to the weather and soil factors has been
reported (Oyesiji, 2013). Determination of suitable workdays will allow farm managers to plan and
optimize the machinery type, capacity and utilization. The objective of this study was to determine the
available suitable workdays for tillage operations at Dogarawa, Giwa, Samaru and Shika areas of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study will assist the farm managers and machinery owners in planning their
field operations and selecting required machinery.
2. Methodology
The study of suitable field workdays for agricultural machinery tillage operations was carried out at
selected areas in Kaduna with coordinate of 11o
11’ N 7o
38’ E on an altitude of about 686 m above sea
level. The areas are situated in the northern Guinea Savannah ecological zone of Nigeria. The region
have three distinct seasons; namely the hot dry season from March to May, the warm rainy season from
June to October, and a cool dry season from November to February with an average relative humidity of
36.0 % during the dry season and 78.5 % for the wet season and average minimum temperature of 15 o
C
and maximum of 38.5 o
C (NCAT, 2008).
3. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. August, 2014; Vol. 10: 41-52
43
Average climatic data and soil properties were taken as the constraining factors to determine the
available workdays for tillage operations. For this purpose 30 years (1982-2012) Climatic data were
obtained from meteorological unit of Institute for Agricultural Research (IAR), Ahmadu Bello
University (ABU), Zaria, Nigeria. The data include rainfall, temperature, (minimum and maximum),
relative humidity, vapour pressure, sunshine hours, wind speed and radiation. The climate data were
used to develop a Suitable Field Workdays (SFWD) computer based programme to solve the constraint
equations involving climate data analysis. It uses the data and soils information as the primary input to
analyze the state of the specified soil on a specified day.
The programme secondary inputs data were specific day, location and soil type. The programme uses
the secondary data to simulate the required climatic data from the primary data located at the database.
The simulated climatic data were used for estimating the rainfall amount, potential evapotranspiration,
runoff and deep percolation by following the predefined algorithm to estimate the soil moisture storage
using the soil moisture budgeting equations.
2.1 Soil Moisture Budgeting
Daily soil moisture balancing for the period April to October (a total of 214 days) for whole year was
estimated. For each of the soil assessed, on the day of initialization the soil moisture (SMnd-1) on the
previous day (31st
, March) was assumed zero. Soil moistures level was determined using Equation (1).
The components (rainfall, runoff, deep percolation etc.) which constituted the soil moisture balance
equation were determined using the simulated weather data and the programmed equations. The
estimated rainfall amount, runoff, deep percolation and initial soil moisture, SMn-1 were fitted into
equation 1 to give the daily soil moisture change on a particular day;
( ) (1)
where:
DSMn = daily soil moisture, mm, Pn= rainfall amount, mm, ETn= potential evapotranspiration, mm/day,
ROn= runoff, mm,
Dn =Deep percolation, mm, SMn-1= initial soil moisture, mm
The actual moisture in the soil is the cumulative sum of the daily soil moisture level change. This is also
the soil moisture storage in mm. The estimated soil moisture for each day was summed cumulatively
from the day of initialization to give the soil moisture level on the specified n day. The cumulative soil
moisture was estimated using Equation (2)
∑ (2)
where;
SMn= stored soil moisture, mm, DSMn=daily soil moisture, mm
Basically, the primary data used to determine the components of the soil moisture budgeting constitute
the climatic data, soil types, moisture levels at field capacities and plastic limits, z-table and the
mathematical equations scripted to analyze the specified task. The components of the soil moisture
budgeting equation were modeled as follows;
4. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
44
2.1.1 Rainfall Amount:
The rainfall amount was determined using the Rainfall Normal Distribution Model equation 3. This
model involves taking the average sum of the rainfall amount, the standard deviation and the
corresponding z value defined by the probability of rainfall Occurrence. Usman (2011) reported that
rainfall normal distribution model gives more accurate rainfall amount of the study areas compared to
other models;
(3)
where:
Pn= estimated rainfall amount, mm, = rainfall mean value, mm, = deviated rainfall value, mm, z = z
value read from normal distributed table,
n= specified day
2.1.2 Potential Evapotranspiration, Eto
Penmann-Monteith Model (equation 4) as reported by Richard et al. (1998) was used to calculate the
potential evapotranspiration. The potential evapotranspiration of the study areas were determined using
the 30 years meteorological data collected from IAR meteorological unit.
( ) ( )
( )
(4)
where;
R= net radiation, MJm-2
day-1
, G= soil heat flux, MJm-2
day-1
, T= air mean temperature, o
C, U= wind
speed, ms-1
, es=saturation vapour pressure, kPa, ea= actual vapour pressure, kPa, Δ= slope vapour
pressure curve, kPaoC-1
, γ= psychometric constant, kPao
C-1
, Specified number of day
2.1.3 Determination of runoff RO;
The surface runoff was assumed to occur when precipitation exceeds a threshold limit defined by
Equation (5) (Suresh, 1997):
( )
if Pn> 0.2×S (5)
Runoff, RO = 0 if Pn ≤0.2×S
where;
S= surface retention capacity, mm, CN= curve number, Pn= rainfall amount, mm
2.1.4 Deep-percolation, Dn
Deep percolation occurred only after the soil pores have been filled with water to field capacity
(Igbadun, 2006). Any water which passes beyond the bottom layer (300mm) is assumed to be lost to
deep percolation. In this study, deep percolation was considered zero if DSMn-1≤Fc. The level of deep
percolation was determined using Equation (6):
5. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. August, 2014; Vol. 10: 41-52
45
( ) (6)
where:
DSM= previous soil moisture storage, mm, FC= field capacity, mm
2.2 Determination of Tractability Conditions for the Collected Soil Samples
The study areas have same climatic conditions so the tractability of agricultural machinery was based on
the soils types and its properties. A 30 cm depth of the soil thickness was considered adequate to support
agricultural machine operations (Gwarzo, 1990). Amount of soil moisture levels within the top 30 cm of
the soil layer and limits of daily rainfall were used as the tractability criteria. The product of the soil
depth, 30 cm, the bulk density of the soil and the moisture level at that limit gives the amount of soil
moisture. The tractability conditions involve the soil textural class, soil moisture level at field capacity
and plastic limit of each soil type, the soil bulk density and the soil depth (300mm) in this study. These
information were used to establish the upper and lower limits of soil moisture level for good traction as
indicated in the Equations (7) and (8) respectively (Gwarzo, 1990).
(7)
(8)
where;
Pl= plastic limit, mm, BD= bulk density, g/cc, D = soil depth, mm, TUL= Tractable Upper Limit, mm,
TLL= Tractable Lower Limit, mm
Twenty (20) different farms were visited in the study areas and ten (10) soil samples were collected
from each of the farms using an auger excavator. The samples collected were analyzed in the Civil
Engineering Department soil testing laboratory, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The constituted clay,
silt and sand in percentage were recorded and grouped based on the USDA textural class. Also, soil
moisture at field capacity of each soil sample was determined with a pressure plate apparatus at 33.33
kPa and recorded. The moisture levels at plastic limits of the soil types were determined. The soil bulk
densities were determined using an un-compacted soil samples extracted with an auger. The bulk
density of a soil mass is the dry weight per unit bulk volume (Musa, 2010).
(9)
where;
BD = Bulk density, g/cc, Wb= weight of dried soil, g, Vc = bulk volume, cm3
The results of the soil analysis, soil moisture level at field capacity, plastic limit, bulk densities and soil
depth were recorded and used to establish the tractability condition using equations 7 and 8.
6. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations of
Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
46
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Soil Types and Characteristics of the Study Areas
The results of the particle soil analysis test are presented in Table 1. The results indicated that most of
the farm land in Samaru had sandy, sand-loam and sandy-clay-loam soil. Shika farm land had sandy-
loam, loam and sandy-clay-loam soil. Loamy and clay soil were most present in Giwa farm land. The
Dogarawa farm land soil types were mostly characterized by sandy-loam, clay-loam and clay soil. The
sandy soil had the highest bulk density of 1.75 g/cc and the least field capacity of 12.5 %. The clay soil
had the highest field capacity of 42% and the least bulk density of 1.27 g/cc. This may be attributed to
the textural properties of the soils. The light textured soils (sandy and sandy-loam) are coarser and
contained more voids; therefore, the moisture retention will be low but higher specific weight in
particles. Heavy textured soils (clay and clay loam) retained more moisture but less specific weight.
This is because heavy textured soils are less coarse and have fewer voids spaces compared with light
textured soils. The soil textural properties greatly influence the moisture retention, drainage
characteristic of soil and tractability of the soil. The clay soil had the highest upper limit of tractable soil
moisture of 149.63 mm while the sandy soil had the least tractable upper soil moisture with 62.34 mm.
The soils with fine particles sizes have higher bulk density.
The moisture level at plastic limits for each soil types are as shown in Table 2. The plastic limits of the
soils were used to establish the lower limit of tractable moisture levels. The clay soil had the highest
moisture level at plastic limit with 24.80 mm and sandy soil had the least with 8.35 mm. Soil moisture
level less than 24.80 mm in the clay soil are considered non tractable soil moisture. This may be
attributed to the soil cohesiveness at that state. Also, it is observed that more coarse soils are easily
friable and less cohesive. A 8.35 mm soil moisture sandy soil is tractable. This is because soil particles
are less cohesive and it can easily get drained.
8. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations
of Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
48
Table 2: Plastic limits showing the lower limit of tractable soil moisture for each soil type
Locations
Average Moisture, %
Tractable Soil Moisture
level, Lower Limit, mm Soil Type
2.783 8.35 Sandy
Samaru 2.967 8.90 Sandy-Loam
3.950 11.85 Sandy-Clay-Loam
2.967 8.90 Sandy-Loam
Dogarawa 8.267 24.80 Clay
6.367 19.10 Clay-Loam
3.550 10.65 Loam
Shika 6.367 8.90 Sandy-Loam
3.950 11.85 Sandy-Clay-Loam
8.267 24.80 Clay
Giwa 3.550 10.65 Loam
3.2 Tractability Conditions for the Soil Types in the Study Areas
The established tractability conditions shown in Table 3 were used to establish if the estimated
soil moistures levels were within the limits bound of tractable soil moisture. This was the major
technique used to segregate between the good and bad field workdays. The clay soil (heavy
textured) was observed to have the highest tractable soil moisture limit with 149.63 mm and the
lower tractable soil moisture limit was 24.80 mm. This may be attributed to moisture retention
capacity and poor rate moisture draining of the soil. Sandy soil had the least tractable soil
moisture. While the sandy soil had the least upper tractable soil moisture among the soil types
considered in this study. The upper limit of tractable soil moisture level was 62.34 mm and the
lowest limit was 8.35 mm. This means that at a less soil moisture, the sandy soil was suitable for
tillage operations unlike the heavy textured (clay) soil. Also, the rainfall criteria involve setting
limits for the immediate previous rainfall amount and the present rainfall amount. For a day to be
considered suitable for tillage operations, the rainfall yesterday and today must not exceed 14
mm and 7 mm respectively, as established in tractability condition shown in the Table 3.
9. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. August, 2014; Vol. 10: 41-52
49
Table 3: Parameters defining field conditions for tractability in the studied areas
Parameter Tractability Criteria Limits of soil Moisture level for each soil type, mm
Sandy
Soil
Sandy-
loam
Loam
Soil
Sandy –
clay-
Loam
Clay
Soil
Clay
loam
1. Tractable or
good
workday
Moisture level in the top 30 cm of
soil profile not exceeds 95 % of field
capacity.
≤62.34 ≤80.54 ≤118.90 ≤118.50 ≤149.63 ≤137.48
Maximum rainfall yesterday (14
mm). (heavy, medium and light
textured soils)
≤14 ≤14 ≤14 ≤14 ≤14 ≤14
Maximum rainfall today (7 mm).
(heavy, medium and light textured
soils)
≤7 ≤7 ≤7 ≤7 ≤7 ≤7
Moisture level in the top 30cm of
soil profile not to be less than lower
plastic value.
≥8.35 ≥8.90 ≥10.65 ≥11.85 ≥24.80 ≥19.10
2. Non-
tractable or
non-good
workday
Moisture level in the top 30cm of
soil profile exceed 95 % of field
capacity (light to medium textured
soils)
≥62.34 ≥80.54 ≥118.9 ≥118.5 ≥149.63 ≥137.48
Maximum rainfall yesterday exceeds
(14 mm). (heavy, medium and light
textured soils)
≥14 ≥14 ≥14 ≥14 ≥14 ≥14
Maximum rainfall today exceeds (7
mm). (heavy, medium and light
textured soils)
≥7 ≥7 ≥7 ≥7 ≥7 ≥7
Moisture level in the top 30cm of
soil profile less than lower plastic
limit value.
<8.35 <8.90 <10.65 <11.85 <24.80 <19.10
3. Best
conditions
for tillage
Moisture level in the top 30cm of
soil profile between lower plastic
limit to upper plastic limit. (heavy,
medium and light textured soils)
From
8.5 to
62.34
From
8.9 to
80.54
From
10.65 to
118.90
From
11.85 to
118.50
From
24.8 to
149.63
From
19.1 to
137.48
Maximum rainfall yesterday (14
mm)
14 14 14 14 14 14
Maximum rainfall today
(7 mm)
7 7 7 7 7 7
3.3 Suitable Workdays for Tillage Operations (ploughing, harrowing and ridging)
Out of the 214 days working season duration for each soil type assessed for tractability
conditions, the sandy-clay-loam soil had the highest suitable workdays with 35.51 % of the total
time as suitable for field work while the clay soil have the lowest estimated number of suitable
workdays with 23.00 % of the total time as suitable for field work. From April to May the light
textured soil had more suitable workdays. Both sandy and sandy-loam soil had 9 and 7 suitable
workdays in the month of April and May respectively. The heavy textured soils (clay and clay-
loam) both had 0 and 1 suitable workday in the month of April and May respectively. This may
be strongly attributed to the textural properties of the soils. In this period, the soil moisture is low
10. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations
of Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
50
and that the cohesive soils (heavy textured soil) are still very hard and not workable. In this
period, the pre-rainy season prevails and the amount of evapotranspiration is more than the
moisture going into the soil. In the month of June, the soil moisture is optimum for tillage
operations. The clay-loam soil had the highest available workdays, the whole of this month was
considered suitable for tillage operations. The sandy soil had the lowest available suitable
workdays with 21 days found to be suitable for tillage operations. The sandy-loam, loam, sandy-
clay-loam and clay had equal number of available suitable tillage workdays which was found to
be 28 days. In the month of July, maximum suitable field workdays are recorded for clay soil
types. This may be attributed to the moisture retention property of the clay soil and that it
required more soil moisture to ensure penetration and pulverization during tillage operations
compare with the light and medium textured soil. Only 2 days found suitable for tilling the light
soil textured soils (sandy and sandy-loam soil) in the month of July. In the month of August and
September, the rainfall intensities were at peak, the soil moisture level exceeds the upper limit of
tractable soil moisture. The clay, clay-loam, sandy-loam and loam soil had no suitable day for
tillage operations. Only the sandy and sandy-clay-loam had 1 day suitable for tillage operation in
the month of August. These soils are coarser, so moisture level can easily be drained to reduce
the soil water level. In the month of September, rainfall occurrence and its intensity started
reducing in the third week of the month. The coarse soils (sandy and sandy-loam) had 11 and 8
suitable workdays respectively. The clay, clay-loam and sandy-clay-loam had 0, 0 and 7 suitable
workdays respectively. This was because the heavy textured soils have more moisture retention
capacity compared with the light textured soil. The moisture level in the light textured soils was
easily drained to obtain tractable soil moisture. The stored moisture level in the soils was further
drained in the month of October. In this month, 18, 14, 9, 0, 0, and 0 tillage workdays were
recorded suitable for sandy, sandy-clay-loam, sandy-loam, clay-loam, loam and clay soil
respectively. Due to the retention capacity of the heavy textured soils (clay and clay-loam), the
moisture level was still above the upper limit of tractable soil moisture. The percentage of
available suitable days for tillage operations are 29.44%, 32.24%, 25.23%, 35.51% 23.00% and
23.36% for sandy-loam, sandy, loam, sandy-clay-loam, clay and clay-loam soils respectively as
shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Estimated machinery good field workdays for tillage operations (ploughing,
harrowing and ridging) for each of the soil types considered in the study areas
Month
Soil types
Sandy soil Sandy-loam soil Loam soil Sandy-clay-loam Clay Clay-loam
April 9 9 6 6 0 1
May 7 7 6 5 0 1
June 21 28 28 28 28 30
July 2 2 14 15 21 18
August 1 0 0 1 0 0
September 11 8 0 7 0 0
October 18 9 0 14 0 0
Total 69 63 54 76 49 50
Percentage
SWD
32.24 % 29.44 % 25.23 % 35.51 % 23.0 % 23.36 %
11. Arid Zone Journal of Engineering, Technology and Environment. August, 2014; Vol. 10: 41-52
51
4. Conclusions
The available suitable field workdays for tillage operations in the selected locations (Dogarawa,
Giwa, Samaru and Shika) were determined using the moisture level stored in the soil and rainfall
as criteria. Out of the 214 days of the total working season, the percentage of available suitable
days for tillage operations were 35.51%, 32.24%,29.44%, 25.23%, 23.36% and 23.00% for
sandy-clay-loam, sandy-loam, sandy, loam, clay-loam and clay soil respectively. The availability
of information on suitable workdays for tillage operations of the study areas will improve
utilization of tillage equipment and general machinery management. Also, it will guide the
farmers in machinery selection and scheduling of field operations.
References
Cevdet, S. and Tobi, I. 2011. Distribution of tractors available workdays over the south-
eastern Anatolia Project (GAP) area. Academic Journals of Agricultural Research, 6(30): 6416-
6424 .
Dyer, JA. and Baier, W. 1979. Weather based estimation of field workdays in fall. Canadian
Agricultural Engineering, 21(2): 119-122.
Edwards, W. and Hannah, M. 2007. Fieldwork days in Iowa. Ag Decision Maker file A3-25
Iowa State University. Retrieved April 11, 2008 from http://
www,extension.iastate.edu/agdm/crop/pdf/a3-25pdf.
Griffin, T. 2009. Days Suitable for Fieldwork in Arkansas. http:// www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/
publications /pdf
Gwarzo, MAS. 1990. Capacitive Performance Study and Optimization of Power and Machinery
on a Large Scale. Agricultural Engineering Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Ahneku, IE. and Onwualu, AP. 2007. Predicting suitable field workdays for soil tillage in North
Central Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Technology, 26(1): 81-88
Igbadun, HE. 2006. Evaluation of Irrigation Scheduling Strategies for Improving Water
Productivity, Computer based Simulation Model Approach. University of Agriculture,
Morogoro.
Musa, B. 2010. Evaluation of a computer based model for predicting soil hydraulic parameters.
Agricultural Engineering Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
Meteorological Station. 2008. Meteorological Data. Nigeria College of Aviation Technology,
(NCAT), Zaria.
Oyesiji, EO. 2013. Assessment of Tractor Hiring Services in Kaduna State. Agricultural
Engineering Department, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.
12. Abdulsalam et al: Determination of suitable field workdays for tillage operations at selected locations
of Kaduna State, Nigeria. AZOJETE, 10: 41-52
52
Rotz, CA. and Harrigan TM. 2005. Predicting suitable days for field machinery operations in a
whole farm simulation. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 21(4): 563-571
Rounsevell, MDA. 1993. A Review of soil workability models and their limitations in temperate
regions. Soil Use and Management, 9(1): 15-21.
Suresh, R. 2009. Soil and Water Conservation Engineering. Standard Publishers Distributors,
New Delhi, India.
USDA. 2009. Crop Progress and Condition Report. National Agricultural Statistics Service,
United State Department of Agriculture, Arkansas.
Usman, DI. 2011. Performance Evaluation of Three Probability Distribution Models for
Predicting Rainfall Amount in Samaru Nigeria. Agricultural Engineering Department, Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria.