11.4 production of gametes
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The document summarizes the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis. It describes how sperm are produced in the testes through mitosis, meiosis and differentiation. Millions of sperm are produced daily starting at puberty. Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, with one egg maturing each month through meiosis. Only one egg is produced per month from fetal development to menopause. The three hormones that regulate spermatogenesis - FSH, LH, and testosterone - are also outlined.
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Post fertilization events
- Cell migration is key to embryo development and formation of germ layers. The blastula possesses polarity and symmetry, with distinct cell areas that give rise to different embryo parts.
- Tracking migrating cells helps map the locations of ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, aiding understanding of early embryo patterning. This process of showing each blastula part's fate is called a "fate map".
- Fate maps are constructed using vital stains or carbon particles to label and track cells, revealing cell movements and ultimate tissues formed. This clarifies gastrulation and represents specific blastula areas' destinies.
Cleavage
1. Cleavage is the first phase of embryonic development after fertilization where the fertilized egg undergoes rapid, indirect cell divisions (mitosis) without an increase in overall size to form a multicellular embryo.
2. The pattern of cleavage depends on how much yolk is present in the egg. Eggs with little yolk (isolecithal) undergo total cleavage (holoblastic), while eggs with more yolk have partial cleavage (meroblastic).
3. In amphibians, which have mesoleithal eggs, cleavage is initially equal but becomes unequal with larger vegetal and smaller animal cells. This leads to the formation of a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity (
Axis and pattern formation in amphibia
Amphibian development begins with fertilization and cortical rotation that establishes dorsal-ventral polarity. Cleavage is holoblastic but unequal, forming a blastula with large yolky cells in the vegetal pole. Gastrulation involves bottle cell invagination, dorsal mesoderm involution, and ectoderm epiboly. The organizer tissue directs body axis formation through beta-catenin signaling in the dorsal region. Left-right asymmetry results from nodal gene expression induced by cilia rotation in the organizer. Amphibians like Xenopus laevis are widely used models for studying these developmental processes.
Cleavage, Types of cleavage
The document summarizes key aspects of cleavage in early embryonic development. It describes how cleavage involves repeated mitotic cell divisions following fertilization, resulting in blastomeres. Cleavage can be total or partial depending on how the cleavage furrows bisect the egg. There are also different cleavage planes and patterns (e.g. radial vs spiral cleavage) that influence cell positioning. Early blastomeres may be determinate, with fate predetermined, or indeterminate, retaining potential to develop into a complete embryo. Cleavages follow basic principles like Sachs' laws regarding equal cell division and perpendicular intersection of division planes.
Fertilization in sea urchin
Fertilization in sea urchins involves several key steps:
1) Sperm are attracted to eggs via chemotaxis using peptides like resact.
2) The acrosomal reaction allows sperm to penetrate the egg jelly and bindin aids binding to the egg.
3) Prevention of polyspermy involves a fast block changing membrane potential and slow block from cortical granule exocytosis.
4) Metabolic activation and pronuclear fusion within the egg forms a zygote, completing fertilization.
PATTERN FORMATION
This document outlines a course on developmental biology and teratology. It discusses how pattern formation during embryogenesis is genetically controlled and involves cells responding to morphogen gradients and cell signaling pathways to develop spatial patterns. Key genes involved in pattern formation are homeobox genes, which help specify where anatomical structures will develop. In particular, Hox genes are organized in clusters and control patterning along the anteroposterior body axis. Mutations in genes of pattern formation can lead to various clinical congenital malformations and anomalies.
Cleavage: Definition, types, and mechanism
Early embryonic development involves a series of key stages:
1. Cleavage - The fertilized egg undergoes rapid, synchronized cell divisions without growth to form a solid ball of cells called a morula.
2. Blastulation - Cell divisions continue and a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel forms, establishing polarity and transforming the morula into a hollow ball of cells called a blastula.
3. Gastrulation - Cells migrate and rearrange through morphogenetic movements to form the three primary germ layers - ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm - establishing the body plan of the embryo.
morphogenetic movements-developmental biology
Morphogenetic movements involve the rearrangement of cells during embryonic development through processes like gastrulation, tubulation, and organogenesis. These movements are caused by large-scale cell movements and changes in cell behavior, and result in changes to embryonic shape and structure. Key morphogenetic processes include cell division, size, shape, adhesion, death, and interactions with the extracellular matrix. Critical examples are the invagination of epithelial sheets during gastrulation and selective outgrowth of limb buds through differential proliferation.
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Post fertilization events
- Cell migration is key to embryo development and formation of germ layers. The blastula possesses polarity and symmetry, with distinct cell areas that give rise to different embryo parts.
- Tracking migrating cells helps map the locations of ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, aiding understanding of early embryo patterning. This process of showing each blastula part's fate is called a "fate map".
- Fate maps are constructed using vital stains or carbon particles to label and track cells, revealing cell movements and ultimate tissues formed. This clarifies gastrulation and represents specific blastula areas' destinies.
Cleavage
1. Cleavage is the first phase of embryonic development after fertilization where the fertilized egg undergoes rapid, indirect cell divisions (mitosis) without an increase in overall size to form a multicellular embryo.
2. The pattern of cleavage depends on how much yolk is present in the egg. Eggs with little yolk (isolecithal) undergo total cleavage (holoblastic), while eggs with more yolk have partial cleavage (meroblastic).
3. In amphibians, which have mesoleithal eggs, cleavage is initially equal but becomes unequal with larger vegetal and smaller animal cells. This leads to the formation of a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity (
Axis and pattern formation in amphibia
Amphibian development begins with fertilization and cortical rotation that establishes dorsal-ventral polarity. Cleavage is holoblastic but unequal, forming a blastula with large yolky cells in the vegetal pole. Gastrulation involves bottle cell invagination, dorsal mesoderm involution, and ectoderm epiboly. The organizer tissue directs body axis formation through beta-catenin signaling in the dorsal region. Left-right asymmetry results from nodal gene expression induced by cilia rotation in the organizer. Amphibians like Xenopus laevis are widely used models for studying these developmental processes.
Cleavage, Types of cleavage
The document summarizes key aspects of cleavage in early embryonic development. It describes how cleavage involves repeated mitotic cell divisions following fertilization, resulting in blastomeres. Cleavage can be total or partial depending on how the cleavage furrows bisect the egg. There are also different cleavage planes and patterns (e.g. radial vs spiral cleavage) that influence cell positioning. Early blastomeres may be determinate, with fate predetermined, or indeterminate, retaining potential to develop into a complete embryo. Cleavages follow basic principles like Sachs' laws regarding equal cell division and perpendicular intersection of division planes.
Fertilization in sea urchin
Fertilization in sea urchins involves several key steps:
1) Sperm are attracted to eggs via chemotaxis using peptides like resact.
2) The acrosomal reaction allows sperm to penetrate the egg jelly and bindin aids binding to the egg.
3) Prevention of polyspermy involves a fast block changing membrane potential and slow block from cortical granule exocytosis.
4) Metabolic activation and pronuclear fusion within the egg forms a zygote, completing fertilization.
PATTERN FORMATION
This document outlines a course on developmental biology and teratology. It discusses how pattern formation during embryogenesis is genetically controlled and involves cells responding to morphogen gradients and cell signaling pathways to develop spatial patterns. Key genes involved in pattern formation are homeobox genes, which help specify where anatomical structures will develop. In particular, Hox genes are organized in clusters and control patterning along the anteroposterior body axis. Mutations in genes of pattern formation can lead to various clinical congenital malformations and anomalies.
Cleavage: Definition, types, and mechanism
Early embryonic development involves a series of key stages:
1. Cleavage - The fertilized egg undergoes rapid, synchronized cell divisions without growth to form a solid ball of cells called a morula.
2. Blastulation - Cell divisions continue and a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoel forms, establishing polarity and transforming the morula into a hollow ball of cells called a blastula.
3. Gastrulation - Cells migrate and rearrange through morphogenetic movements to form the three primary germ layers - ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm - establishing the body plan of the embryo.
morphogenetic movements-developmental biology
Morphogenetic movements involve the rearrangement of cells during embryonic development through processes like gastrulation, tubulation, and organogenesis. These movements are caused by large-scale cell movements and changes in cell behavior, and result in changes to embryonic shape and structure. Key morphogenetic processes include cell division, size, shape, adhesion, death, and interactions with the extracellular matrix. Critical examples are the invagination of epithelial sheets during gastrulation and selective outgrowth of limb buds through differential proliferation.
Regeneration
1. There are four main types of regeneration: stem cell mediated, epimorphosis, morphallaxis, and compensatory regeneration.
2. Epimorphosis involves de-differentiation of cells forming a blastema which then re-differentiates, as seen in salamander limb regeneration.
3. Morphallaxis involves re-patterning of existing tissues with little new growth, as seen when hydra fragments regenerate entire organisms.
Molecular event during fertilization
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
GAMETES
STRUCTURE OF GAMETES
SPERM
OVUM
RECOGNITION OF EGG AND SPERM
CAPACITATION
ACROSOME REACTION
SPECIES-SPECIFIC RECOGNITION
GAMETE BINDING AND RECOGNITION
GAMETE FUSION
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY
ACTIVATION OF GAMETE METABOLISM
FUSION OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF FERTILIZATION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Cleavage
This document discusses various aspects of cleavage in fertilized eggs. It begins by defining cleavage as the process of segmentation of the zygote into multiple cells or blastomeres following fertilization. The blastomeres initially remain closely associated but later form a hollow sphere called a blastula. Three key points are made: 1) Cleavage prepares the groundwork for embryonic design by producing cells, 2) It establishes conditions for gastrulation, the next developmental stage. 3) Distinct planes of cell division exist during early cleavage. The document then describes different types of cleavage patterns and their relationships to embryonic cell fate determination.
Development of frog/ embryogenesis
1. The development of frog consists of copulation, spawning, fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation, and post-embryonic development.
2. During gastrulation, epiboly, imboly, contraction of the blastopore, and involution occur, forming the three germ layers - ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
3. Post-embryonic development includes neurogenesis forming the neural tube, notogenesis forming the notochord, and coelom formation separating the mesoderm into three layers.
Types of egg
There are three main ways to classify types of eggs: by amount of yolk, distribution of yolk, and presence of a shell. In terms of yolk amount, eggs can be alecithal (negligible yolk), microlecithal (small yolk), mesolecithal (moderate yolk), or polylecithal (large yolk). Distribution of yolk determines if an egg is isollecithal (evenly distributed), telolecithal (yolk on one pole), or centrolecithal (yolk in center). Finally, eggs can have a hard shell (cleidoic) like reptiles and birds or lack a shell (non-cleido
Regeneration sat
Regeneration involves the reactivation of development to restore missing tissues through various mechanisms. Epimorphic regeneration occurs when differentiated cells dedifferentiate to form an undifferentiated blastema which then proliferates and redifferentiates into the new structure. Salamanders regenerate limbs through epimorphosis by forming a blastema beneath the wound epidermis/apical ectodermal cap. Blastema cells require both nerves and growth factors from the apical ectodermal cap to proliferate. Patterning molecules like retinoic acid and Hox genes help reestablish proximal-distal patterning in the regenerating limb.
FATE Map
A chart showing the fate of each part of an early embryo, in a particular blastula stage is called fate maps. It is done because the correct interpretation of gastrulation is impossible without the knowledge of the position which are the presumptive germinal layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm) occupy in blastula.
Fate mapping is a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures. The "fate" of each cell or group of cells is mapped onto the embryo, showing which parts of the embryo will develop into which tissue. When carried out at single-cell resolution, this process is called cell lineage tracing. It is also used to trace the development of tumors.
Gastrulation in frog embryo
1) Gastrulation in frog embryos involves the inward migration of cells through the blastopore, converting the blastula into a gastrula with three germ layers.
2) Specifically, endodermal and mesodermal cells involute inward, with mesoderm occupying the region between endoderm and ectoderm. The blastopore gradually closes.
3) This process transforms the spherical blastula into a bilaterally symmetrical gastrula, which then undergoes neurulation to form the neural tube and become a neurula.
Metamorphosis-amphibians, hormonal control
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
Cleavage and its patterns
1. Cleavage is the repeated division of the fertilized egg without an increase in size that produces an increase in the number of cells.
2. There are three main patterns of cleavage: holoblastic, where the cleavage furrow divides the entire egg; meroblastic, where cleavage is restricted to the upper disc region; and superficial, where early divisions occur in the surface layer.
3. Cleavage can also be classified based on the fate of blastomeres and their arrangement. Determinate cleavage leads to a mosaic embryo where blastomere fate is predetermined, while indeterminate cleavage blastomeres are less rigidly determined. Radial and spiral cleavage describe the arrangement of blastomeres
Cell fate (fate maps)
Fate maps are the bases for experimental embryology since they provide researchers with information on which portions of the embryo normally become which larval or adult structures.
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process by which the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) are formed in the embryo through cell movements. In amphibians, cells from the blastula's outer layer invaginate and involute to form the inner layers. The blastocoel is replaced by the archenteron. In birds, the epiblast and hypoblast layers are initially formed; the epiblast gives rise solely to the three germ layers. Gastrulation rearranges cells into layers that will develop into tissues and organs.
Basics of developmental biology 1
This document provides an overview of key concepts in developmental biology. It discusses induction, in which one cell or tissue signals another to influence developmental fate. Competence is the ability of a cell to respond to inductive signals through expression of receptors. Commitment is when a cell decides its fate, either through inductive signals or cytoplasmic determinants distributing asymmetrically. Specification is a reversible commitment, while determination is irreversible. Differentiation allows cells to become specialized through protein synthesis. Morphogenesis involves a cell gaining shape. Autonomous and conditional specification are strategies where cells determine fate independently or through interactions, respectively.
Blastulation
The document summarizes the process of blastulation in embryonic development. It describes how the zygote undergoes cleavage, forming blastomeres that arrange into a structure called a morula. The morula then develops into the blastula stage, where the cells form a blastoderm layer surrounding an interior cavity called the blastocoel. There are different types of blastulae depending on features like whether the blastocoel is present, the number of cell layers in the blastoderm, and how yolk is distributed. Key blastula types include coeloblastula, stereoblastula, periblastula, discoblastula, and blastocyst.
vittelogenesis.pptx
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
EARLY MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT
Mammalian development begins with fertilization inside the female's body. The zygote then undergoes cleavage divisions that are slower than in other animals. Around the 8-cell stage, the cells compact together and later form two distinct cell types - the inner cell mass and trophoblast cells. The trophoblast cells go on to form the blastocyst, with an inner cell mass surrounded by trophoblast cells. The blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida and implants in the uterus, where the trophoblast cells invade the uterine tissue and the inner cell mass forms the embryo.
organogensis
Organogenesis is the process by which the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) develop into internal organs through cell proliferation, migration, aggregation, and differentiation. During organogenesis, the germ layers form organs through processes like folding, splitting, and condensation. Organs continue developing and differentiating after gastrulation through the end of the 8th week of human development. Key events include the formation of the neural tube from ectoderm and the development of connective tissues, ribs, lungs, and other structures from mesoderm. The endoderm forms organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines.
Development of chick
The document summarizes key stages in early chick development:
1) Fertilization occurs internally in the oviduct, followed by cleavage and the beginning of gastrulation even before egg laying.
2) Blastulation involves the formation of the blastoderm layers and subgerminal cavity.
3) Gastrulation continues after laying, forming the primitive streak which elongates toward the head region through cell migration.
4) Cells migrate through the streak to form the endoderm and mesoderm, and the ectoderm covers the embryo through epiboly. Axis specification establishes bilateral symmetry.
Development of drosophila
Introduction
About Drosophila
Genome of Drosophila
Life cycle
Differentiation
Development of Drosophila
* Embryonic development
* Dorsal -ventral and
* Anterior posterior development
* Body segmentation
* Homeotic gene
Conclusion
Reference
Cell determination and differentiation
Cell determination and differentiation are important processes in development. Cell determination involves genes being selectively activated or inactivated, committing an embryonic cell to a specific type. Differentiation then further specializes the cell, changing its size, shape and function. Gene expression plays a key role, with different genes being switched on or off in different cell types. The environment also influences cell fate and specialization.
Cac
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is the final common pathway for the oxidation of nutrients. It occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Acetyl-CoA from various sources enters the CAC and is oxidized to CO2, producing reduced cofactors that drive ATP synthesis. The 8-step cycle produces ATP, GTP, and reduced cofactors NADH and FADH2. Key enzymes and cofactors regulate the cycle in response to energy demands and product inhibition. Anaplerotic reactions maintain CAC intermediate levels.
11.4 sexual reproduction
- Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, meiosis, and cell differentiation to produce gametes. However, they result in different numbers and types of gametes.
- Fertilization internally involves many sperm penetrating the egg's layers until one fuses with the egg cytoplasm to form a zygote, preventing multiple fertilizations.
- Early embryo development includes cell division as the embryo moves through the fallopian tube and implants in the uterus, forming a placenta to exchange nutrients with the mother.
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Regeneration
1. There are four main types of regeneration: stem cell mediated, epimorphosis, morphallaxis, and compensatory regeneration.
2. Epimorphosis involves de-differentiation of cells forming a blastema which then re-differentiates, as seen in salamander limb regeneration.
3. Morphallaxis involves re-patterning of existing tissues with little new growth, as seen when hydra fragments regenerate entire organisms.
Molecular event during fertilization
INTRODUCTION
DEFINATION
GAMETES
STRUCTURE OF GAMETES
SPERM
OVUM
RECOGNITION OF EGG AND SPERM
CAPACITATION
ACROSOME REACTION
SPECIES-SPECIFIC RECOGNITION
GAMETE BINDING AND RECOGNITION
GAMETE FUSION
PREVENTION OF POLYSPERMY
ACTIVATION OF GAMETE METABOLISM
FUSION OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
SIGNIFICANCE OF FERTILIZATION
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
Cleavage
This document discusses various aspects of cleavage in fertilized eggs. It begins by defining cleavage as the process of segmentation of the zygote into multiple cells or blastomeres following fertilization. The blastomeres initially remain closely associated but later form a hollow sphere called a blastula. Three key points are made: 1) Cleavage prepares the groundwork for embryonic design by producing cells, 2) It establishes conditions for gastrulation, the next developmental stage. 3) Distinct planes of cell division exist during early cleavage. The document then describes different types of cleavage patterns and their relationships to embryonic cell fate determination.
Development of frog/ embryogenesis
1. The development of frog consists of copulation, spawning, fertilization, cleavage, blastulation, gastrulation, and post-embryonic development.
2. During gastrulation, epiboly, imboly, contraction of the blastopore, and involution occur, forming the three germ layers - ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
3. Post-embryonic development includes neurogenesis forming the neural tube, notogenesis forming the notochord, and coelom formation separating the mesoderm into three layers.
Types of egg
There are three main ways to classify types of eggs: by amount of yolk, distribution of yolk, and presence of a shell. In terms of yolk amount, eggs can be alecithal (negligible yolk), microlecithal (small yolk), mesolecithal (moderate yolk), or polylecithal (large yolk). Distribution of yolk determines if an egg is isollecithal (evenly distributed), telolecithal (yolk on one pole), or centrolecithal (yolk in center). Finally, eggs can have a hard shell (cleidoic) like reptiles and birds or lack a shell (non-cleido
Regeneration sat
Regeneration involves the reactivation of development to restore missing tissues through various mechanisms. Epimorphic regeneration occurs when differentiated cells dedifferentiate to form an undifferentiated blastema which then proliferates and redifferentiates into the new structure. Salamanders regenerate limbs through epimorphosis by forming a blastema beneath the wound epidermis/apical ectodermal cap. Blastema cells require both nerves and growth factors from the apical ectodermal cap to proliferate. Patterning molecules like retinoic acid and Hox genes help reestablish proximal-distal patterning in the regenerating limb.
FATE Map
A chart showing the fate of each part of an early embryo, in a particular blastula stage is called fate maps. It is done because the correct interpretation of gastrulation is impossible without the knowledge of the position which are the presumptive germinal layers (Ectoderm, Mesoderm and Endoderm) occupy in blastula.
Fate mapping is a method used in developmental biology to study the embryonic origin of various adult tissues and structures. The "fate" of each cell or group of cells is mapped onto the embryo, showing which parts of the embryo will develop into which tissue. When carried out at single-cell resolution, this process is called cell lineage tracing. It is also used to trace the development of tumors.
Gastrulation in frog embryo
1) Gastrulation in frog embryos involves the inward migration of cells through the blastopore, converting the blastula into a gastrula with three germ layers.
2) Specifically, endodermal and mesodermal cells involute inward, with mesoderm occupying the region between endoderm and ectoderm. The blastopore gradually closes.
3) This process transforms the spherical blastula into a bilaterally symmetrical gastrula, which then undergoes neurulation to form the neural tube and become a neurula.
Metamorphosis-amphibians, hormonal control
Metamorphosis in amphibians involves dramatic changes initiated by thyroid hormones that transform aquatic larvae into terrestrial adults. These changes include remodeling of tissues and organs like development of lungs and loss of gills to transition from aquatic to terrestrial respiration. Changes in skin, digestive system and other organs prepare the amphibian for life on land. The process is controlled by thyroid hormones which activate receptors that turn on genes driving tissue remodeling and metamorphosis.
Cleavage and its patterns
1. Cleavage is the repeated division of the fertilized egg without an increase in size that produces an increase in the number of cells.
2. There are three main patterns of cleavage: holoblastic, where the cleavage furrow divides the entire egg; meroblastic, where cleavage is restricted to the upper disc region; and superficial, where early divisions occur in the surface layer.
3. Cleavage can also be classified based on the fate of blastomeres and their arrangement. Determinate cleavage leads to a mosaic embryo where blastomere fate is predetermined, while indeterminate cleavage blastomeres are less rigidly determined. Radial and spiral cleavage describe the arrangement of blastomeres
Cell fate (fate maps)
Fate maps are the bases for experimental embryology since they provide researchers with information on which portions of the embryo normally become which larval or adult structures.
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is the process by which the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm) are formed in the embryo through cell movements. In amphibians, cells from the blastula's outer layer invaginate and involute to form the inner layers. The blastocoel is replaced by the archenteron. In birds, the epiblast and hypoblast layers are initially formed; the epiblast gives rise solely to the three germ layers. Gastrulation rearranges cells into layers that will develop into tissues and organs.
Basics of developmental biology 1
This document provides an overview of key concepts in developmental biology. It discusses induction, in which one cell or tissue signals another to influence developmental fate. Competence is the ability of a cell to respond to inductive signals through expression of receptors. Commitment is when a cell decides its fate, either through inductive signals or cytoplasmic determinants distributing asymmetrically. Specification is a reversible commitment, while determination is irreversible. Differentiation allows cells to become specialized through protein synthesis. Morphogenesis involves a cell gaining shape. Autonomous and conditional specification are strategies where cells determine fate independently or through interactions, respectively.
Blastulation
The document summarizes the process of blastulation in embryonic development. It describes how the zygote undergoes cleavage, forming blastomeres that arrange into a structure called a morula. The morula then develops into the blastula stage, where the cells form a blastoderm layer surrounding an interior cavity called the blastocoel. There are different types of blastulae depending on features like whether the blastocoel is present, the number of cell layers in the blastoderm, and how yolk is distributed. Key blastula types include coeloblastula, stereoblastula, periblastula, discoblastula, and blastocyst.
vittelogenesis.pptx
Vittelogenesis is a word developed from Latin vitellus-yolk, and genero-produce
Vitellogenesis (also known as yolk deposition) is the process of yolk formation via nutrients being deposited in the oocyte, or female germ cell involved in reproduction of lecithotrophic organisms. In insects, it starts when the fat body stimulates the release of juvenile hormones and produces vitellogenin protein.
Yolks is the most usual form of food storage in the egg.
Yolks appear in the oocyte in the secondary period of their growth called vittelogenesis.
Thus,the formation and deposition of yolks is known as vittelogenesis
Characteristic
Yolks is a complex variable assembled component.
The principle component are protein,phospholipid and fats in different combination.
Depending upon these component yolks is distinguished into protein yolks and fatty acid
For eg- the avian contain 48.19% water , 16.6 % protein, 32.6% phospholipids and fats and 1% carbohydrates.
EARLY MAMMALIAN DEVELOPMENT
Mammalian development begins with fertilization inside the female's body. The zygote then undergoes cleavage divisions that are slower than in other animals. Around the 8-cell stage, the cells compact together and later form two distinct cell types - the inner cell mass and trophoblast cells. The trophoblast cells go on to form the blastocyst, with an inner cell mass surrounded by trophoblast cells. The blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida and implants in the uterus, where the trophoblast cells invade the uterine tissue and the inner cell mass forms the embryo.
organogensis
Organogenesis is the process by which the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) develop into internal organs through cell proliferation, migration, aggregation, and differentiation. During organogenesis, the germ layers form organs through processes like folding, splitting, and condensation. Organs continue developing and differentiating after gastrulation through the end of the 8th week of human development. Key events include the formation of the neural tube from ectoderm and the development of connective tissues, ribs, lungs, and other structures from mesoderm. The endoderm forms organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines.
Development of chick
The document summarizes key stages in early chick development:
1) Fertilization occurs internally in the oviduct, followed by cleavage and the beginning of gastrulation even before egg laying.
2) Blastulation involves the formation of the blastoderm layers and subgerminal cavity.
3) Gastrulation continues after laying, forming the primitive streak which elongates toward the head region through cell migration.
4) Cells migrate through the streak to form the endoderm and mesoderm, and the ectoderm covers the embryo through epiboly. Axis specification establishes bilateral symmetry.
Development of drosophila
Introduction
About Drosophila
Genome of Drosophila
Life cycle
Differentiation
Development of Drosophila
* Embryonic development
* Dorsal -ventral and
* Anterior posterior development
* Body segmentation
* Homeotic gene
Conclusion
Reference
Cell determination and differentiation
Cell determination and differentiation are important processes in development. Cell determination involves genes being selectively activated or inactivated, committing an embryonic cell to a specific type. Differentiation then further specializes the cell, changing its size, shape and function. Gene expression plays a key role, with different genes being switched on or off in different cell types. The environment also influences cell fate and specialization.
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11.4 sexual reproduction
- Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, meiosis, and cell differentiation to produce gametes. However, they result in different numbers and types of gametes.
- Fertilization internally involves many sperm penetrating the egg's layers until one fuses with the egg cytoplasm to form a zygote, preventing multiple fertilizations.
- Early embryo development includes cell division as the embryo moves through the fallopian tube and implants in the uterus, forming a placenta to exchange nutrients with the mother.
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Theory of Knowledge (TOK) challenges students to critically reflect on different ways of knowing and areas of knowledge. TOK is composed of questions that encourage thoughtful inquiry, such as how we know assertions are true. Students who would do well in TOK are willing to thoughtfully inquire into different kinds of knowledge, become aware of themselves as thinkers, and question their own perceptions while remaining open-minded. The course requirements for TOK include analyzing knowledge claims, comparing approaches to knowledge issues, and accurately communicating ideas with academic honesty.
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Gall Bladder & Pancreas.
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gametogenesis
Ringkasan dokumen tersebut adalah:
1. Gametogenesis adalah proses pembentukan gamet melalui oogenesis dan spermatogenesis.
2. Oogenesis terjadi di ovarium dan menghasilkan ovum, sedangkan spermatogenesis terjadi di testis dan menghasilkan sperma.
3. Kedua proses tersebut melibatkan pembelahan sel melalui mitosis dan meiosis untuk menghasilkan gamet yang haploid.
HORMONAL CONTROL OF TESTICULAR FUNCTION
The document discusses testicular function and hormonal control. It notes that the testes contain two compartments - the tubular compartment containing seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs, and the interstitial compartment containing Leydig cells that produce testosterone. Spermatogenesis requires high intratesticular testosterone levels produced by Leydig cells under control of LH from the pituitary. The hypothalamus secretes GnRH to stimulate the pituitary to secrete LH and FSH. LH stimulates testosterone production and FSH supports spermatogenesis by acting on Sertoli cells. Inhibin and activin secreted by Sertoli cells provide local feedback regulation of FSH levels
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2. The lungs contain over 300 million alveoli which provide a large surface area for gas exchange. Each alveolus is lined by fluid and surfactant that helps reduce surface tension to facilitate breathing.
3. During inspiration, contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles increases the thoracic cavity volume, lowering pressure and drawing air into the lungs. Expiration is passive as the lungs and chest wall recoil, increasing pressure to push
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Giving overview of human embryonic development including spermatogenesis, oogenesis, fertilization, gastrulation, cleavage, extraembryonic layers and pregnancy
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The pancreas is a 15-20cm long organ located in the retroperitoneum. It has a head, body, and tail. The pancreas contains exocrine tissue that produces enzymes to aid digestion and endocrine tissue clustered in islets of Langerhans that produce hormones like insulin and glucagon. The pancreas develops from dorsal and ventral buds that fuse during embryogenesis. It receives blood supply from various arteries and drains into veins like the portal vein. The pancreas secretes enzymes and bicarbonate to digest nutrients in the small intestine. Removal of the pancreas results in diabetes and digestive issues due to lack of enzymes.
ANATOMY OF PANCREAS
The pancreas is a soft, lobulated gland located behind the stomach in the abdomen. It has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The exocrine function involves secreting pancreatic juice to aid digestion. The endocrine function involves secreting insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels.
The pancreas has a head, neck, body and tail. The head is located in the curve of the duodenum. The body extends from the neck to the tail, passing toward the left side of the abdomen. The main pancreatic duct drains the exocrine secretions and runs through the pancreas before joining with the common bile duct to form the ampulla of Vater which empties into the duodenum.
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The document summarizes the histological structure of the pancreas. It describes the pancreas as having both exocrine and endocrine parts. The exocrine portion consists of acini that secrete digestive enzymes through a system of ducts into the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans that secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon to regulate blood sugar levels. On a microscopic level, the exocrine pancreas is made up of serous acini composed of pyramidal cells that secrete enzymes into the lumen, while the islets of Langerhans contain alpha, beta, and delta cells that secrete glucagon, insulin, and somatost
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haploid phase in the life cycle between meiosis and gametogenesis is also referred to as
alternation of generations.
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Prefix Multiple Standard form
centi (cm) 1 cm = 0.01 m x 10-2
milli (mm) 1 mm = 0.001 m x 10-3
micro (μm) 1 μm = 0.000 001 m x 10-6
nano (nm) 1 nm = 0.000 000 001 m x 10-9
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11.4 production of gametes
- 1. 11.4 Production of Gametes Topic 11 Human Health & Physiology
- 2. Spermatogenesis 11.4.1 Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germinal epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells. 11.4.2 Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testis, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation. (The names of the intermediate stages in spermatogenesis are not required.) 11.4.3 State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis.
- 3. Oogenesis 11.4.4 Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germinal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte. 11.4.5 Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body. (The terms oogonia and primary oocyte are not required.)
- 4. Gametogenesis 11.4.6 Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg. 11.4.7 Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen. 11.4.8 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes.
- 5. Structure of the Testis Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 6. Spermatogenesis Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 7. Summary of Spermatogenesis Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 8. Hormonal control of Spermatogenesis Three hormones are involved in the production of sperm. FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone). Produced in the pituitary gland (brain). Stimulated primary spermatocytes to undergo the first meiotic division to form secondary spermatocytes. Testosterone. Produced in the interstitial cells in the testies Stimulates the development of secondary spermatocytes into mature sperm. LH (Lutenising Hormone) - (ICSH will not be used) Produced in the pituitary gland (brain). Stimulates the secretion of testosterone by the testis
- 9. Production of Semen Three structures help to produce semen: The epididymis. Sperm arrive here unable to swim. The sperm mature while they are stored in the epididymis and learn to swim. Seminal vesicles. Produces fluid which contains nutrients for the sperm (fructose). Also contains mucus which protects the sperm in the vagina. Prostate gland. Produces a fluid which contains mineral ions. The fluid is also alkaline to protect the sperm in the acidic conditions of the vagina.
- 10. Structure of Mature Sperm Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott Ref: Yr11 Biology, Biozone
- 11. Structure of the Ovaries Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 12. Oogenesis Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 13. Summary of Oogenesis Ref: Biology for the IB Diploma, Allott
- 14. Structure of a Mature Egg
- 15. Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis Compared Spermatogenesis Millions produced daily Released during ejaculation. Sperm formation starts during puberty in boys. Sperm production continues throughout the adult life of men. Four sperm produced per meiosis. Oogenesis One matures every 28 days Released on about day 14 of menstrual cycle by ovulation. The early stages of egg production happen during fetal development in females. Egg production becomes irregular and then stops at menopause in women. Only one egg is produced per meiosis.
- 16. IBO guide: 11.4.1 Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germinal epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells. 11.4.2 Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testis, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation. (The names of the intermediate stages in spermatogenesis are not required.) 11.4.3 State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis.
- 17. IBO guide: 11.4.4 Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germinal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte. 11.4.5 Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body. (The terms oogonia and primary oocyte are not required.)
- 18. IBO guide: 11.4.6 Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg. 11.4.7 Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen. 11.4.8 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes.