This document provides an overview of vitamins and minerals. It discusses 13 known vitamins, classifying them as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Key details are provided on the sources, functions, and deficiency symptoms of important vitamins like A, C, D, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, and folate. Minerals are introduced as inorganic nutrients divided into macro and trace categories. Examples like calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc are described as important cations, while anions like chloride, fluoride, phosphate, and selenium are outlined along with their major functions in the body. The document serves as an introductory chapter on vitamins and minerals for pharmacy students.

1. Chapter 1-Vitamins and
Minerals
Biochemistry II for Pharmacy Students
AMU, 2023
By; Kefita Kashala (MSc in Medical Biochemistry)
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2. 1.1. Vitamins (vital-amines)
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 are chemically unrelated small organic molecules present in diet
which are required in small amounts.
• Most of the vitamins are not synthesized in the body and hence
they must be supplied in the diet or by bacterial flora in the gut.
• However, few vitamins are synthesized in the body.
• Though most of them are present in diet as such some are
present as precursors.
• Not all vitamins were amines, the word was already ubiquitous.
• The precursor forms of vitamins are called as provitamins.
• In the body these provitamins are converted to vitamins.
• The following facts must be remembered to deal with vitamins
1. They are needed in microgram quantities
2. Vitamin deficiency leads to disease.

3.  Presently 13 different vitamins are known to be required in the
diet of the humans and many animal species for normal growth
and function.
 Vitamins are biosynthetic precursors of physiologically active
forms called coenzymes. Coenzymes participate in many
enzyme reactions.
 In addition, certain specialized functions in humans are
performed by vitamins. For example, vitamin A plays an
important role in visual process.
 The biology of vitamins may be examined from two
viewpoints: nutritional and biochemical.
 The former is concerned with minimum daily requirements,
dietary sources, bioavailability, and deficiency syndromes.
 The biochemist examines structure, conversion to coenzymes,
mechanism of action, mode of transport and storage,
metabolism and biochemical role. 3

4. Sources, Daily Requirements and Deficiency of
Vitamins
 Humans obtain vitamins from two sources:
1.Diet: Since vitamins cannot be manufactured by humans,
they must be obtained from food (exception is vitamin D).
2.Intestinal microorganisms: Some vitamins can be
synthesized by the intestinal microorganisms. However,
the quantity synthesized in this manner may not be
sufficient to meet the daily requirement. Biotin(Vt. B7), how-
ever, is an exception; it is synthesized in larger quantities than
required by the body.
4

5.  Vitamins are referred to as micronutrients because
their dietary requirements are in negligible quantities,
amounting to few micrograms or milligrams per day.
 The dietary requirements for vitamins are specified in terms of
a recommended daily allowance (RDA).
 The RDA defines not a minimal requirement but dietary intake
that is considered optimal under ordinary conditions.
 Age, sex, body weight, diet and physiological status have
a significant effect on the RDA.
 Thus, increased dietary intake of many vitamins are
recommended during pregnancy and lactation
The following table (18.1) summarizes the RDAs for most
important vitamins for a 70 kg male. 5

6. 6

7. Dietary Vitamin Deficiencies
 May result in pathology and even death.
 Various causes of vitamin deficiency are as below:
1. Inadequate dietary intake- due to faulty dietary habits or
poverty.
2. Inadequate intestinal absorption, which may result
from various gastrointestinal disorders, or from biliary
obstruction. The latter may lead to deficiency of the
fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) since bile is
required for their absorption. Lack of intrinsic factor, a
factor required for the intestinal absorption of vitamin B12
results in deficiency of this vitamin which leads to pernicious
anaemia. Some vitamins participate in enterohepatic
circulation. Hence, deficiency of such vitamins is a natural
consequence of impaired enterohepatic circulation 7

8. 3. Inadequate utilization by the target tissues may also lead to
vitamin deficiency, even when dietary intake and absorption are
normal. Causes of inadequate use include:
 Lack of transport proteins that carry the vitamins
to the peripheral sites where they are utilized.
 Defective uptake of the vitamins by the target tissues or
impaired interaction of the (fat-soluble) vitamins with the
receptors located on target tissues.
 Failure to convert the vitamin precursor(s) to activated form(s).
4. Increased requirements which occur during pregnancy,
lactation, growth, wound healing and convalescence. In some
cases, an increased requirement precipitates a borderline
deficiency into a frank deficiency
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9. 5. Drug-induced deficiency such as loss of vitamin synthesis
in the gastrointestinal tract due to elimination of the
microorganisms by antibiotics.
 Pyridoxine deficiency develops in patients receiving
isoniazid for the treatment of tuberculosis (isoniazid forms
a hydrazone with pyridoxal; the pyridoxal–hydrazone is
rapidly excreted in urine, and the vitamin deficiency
results).
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10. Classification
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11. 1. Fat Soluble Vitamins
 The fat-soluble vitamins are soluble in fat and other nonpolar
solvents.
 All are synthesized fully or partly from isoprene units and
excess quantities are stored in fat containing cells and liver pose
a greater risk of toxicity or even lethal when consumed in
excess
 The fat-soluble vitamins appear not to function as components
of coenzymes but to serve other important roles.
 Includes vitamins A, D, E and K.
 They require bile salts for absorption, Stored in liver.
 They are stable to normal cooking conditions and
 excreted in feces 11

12. 12

13. 13

14. Vitamin A (retin-ol,-al, -ate) (provitamin A, as beta carotene)
 Source
 liver, fortified milk and dairy products, butter, whole milk,
cheese, egg yolk.
 Provitamin A: carrots, leafy green vegetables, sweet potatoes
 Functions
 Helps to form skin and mucous membranes and keep them healthy,
thus increasing resistance to infections;
 essential for night vision (retinal)
 promotes bones and tooth development(retinoic acid)
 necessary for the reproductive system(Retinol)
 Beta carotene is an antioxidant and may protect against cancer
 Deficiency
 Mild: night blindness, diarrhea, intestinal infections, impaired
vision.
 Severe: inflammation of eyes, keratinization of skin and eyes.
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15. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol)
 Source
 Dairy products, margarine, fish oils, egg yolk.
 Synthesized by sunlight action on skin
 Functions
 Promotes hardening of bones and teeth, increases the
absorption of calcium
 Deficiency
 Bone pain and skeletal
 deformities such as bowlegs(Rickets) and knock-knee in
children.
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16. Vitamin E(tocopherol)
 Source
 Vegetable oil, margarine, butter, green and leafy vegetables,
wheat and grain products, nuts, egg yolk, liver.
 Functions
 Protects vitamins A and C and fatty acids
 prevents damage to cell membranes
 Antioxidant
 Deficiency
 possible anemia in low birth-weight infants
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17. Vitamin K
Source
 Dark green leafy vegetables, liver
 also made by bacteria in the intestine.
Function
 Helps blood to clot.
Deficiency
 Excessive bleeding
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18. 2. Water Soluble Vitamins
 Includes vitamin B complex and Vitamin C.
 Except Vitamin B12 others are not stored.
 They are unstable to normal cooking conditions
 Can be excreted in urine.
 So their intake has to be more frequent than fat-soluble vitamins
that are stored. A well-nourished adult, for example, may have
three years’ supply of vitamin A but only three
months’ supply of vitamin C.
 Most water-soluble vitamins are precursors of coenzymes:
riboflavin, for example, is required for the synthesis of the
flavin coenzymes, niacin for NAD + and NADP+, thiamine for
thiamine pyrophosphate, pantothenic acid for coenzyme A, and
folic acid for tetrahydrofolate
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19. 19

20. Cont…
20

21. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Source
 Citrus fruits, strawberries, melon, green pepper, tomatoes,
green vegetables, potatoes.
Function
 Formation of collagen (a component of tissues), helps hold
them together; wound healing; maintaining blood vessels,
bones, teeth; absorption of iron, calcium, folacin;
production of brain hormones, immune factors;
antioxidant.
Deficiency
 Bleeding gums; wounds don't heal; dry, rough skin; scurvy;
sore joints and bones; increased infections.
 Most unstable under heat, drying, storage; very soluble in water,
leaches out of some vegetables during cooking;
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22. Thiamin (vitamin B1 )
Source
 Pork, liver, whole grains, enriched grain products, peas,
meat, legumes.
Functions
 Helps release energy from foods (Part of Co-enzyme)
 promotes normal appetite
 important in function of nervous system.
Deficiency
 Beriberi, Mental confusion; muscle weakness, edema;
impaired growth;
(NB. In Sinhalese, beriberi means ‘I cannot’ (said twice), signifying that the patient is too ill to do
anything).
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23. Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
Source
 Liver, milk, dark green vegetables, whole and enriched
grain products, eggs.
Functions
 Helps release energy from foods (present as Co-enzyme
FAD and FMN); promotes good vision, healthy skin.
Deficiency
 Cracks at corners of mouth; dermatitis around nose and
lips; eyes sensitive to light.
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24. Vitamin B3 : Niacin (nicotinamide, nicotinic acid)
Source
 Liver, fish, poultry, meat, peanuts, whole and enriched
grain products.
Functions
 Energy production from foods (form coenzymes NAD
and NADP);
 aids digestion, promotes normal appetite; promotes
healthy skin, nerves.
Deficiency
 Skin disorders; diarrhea; weakness; mental confusion;
irritability.
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25. Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)
Source
 Liver, kidney, meats, egg yolk, whole grains, legumes; also
made by intestinal bacteria.
Functions
 Involved in energy production
 aids in formation of hormones.
Deficiency
 Uncommon due to availability in most foods;
 fatigue; nausea, abdominal cramps; difficulty sleeping.
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26. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine)
Source
 Pork, meats, whole grains and cereals, legumes, green, leafy
vegetables.
Functions
 Aids in protein metabolism, absorption
 aids in red blood cell formation
 helps body use fats.
Deficiency
 Skin disorders, dermatitis, cracks at corners of mouth;
irritability; anemia; kidney stones; nausea; smooth tongue.
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27. Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
Source
 Liver, kidney, egg yolk, milk, most fresh vegetables, also
made by intestinal bacteria.
Functions
 Helps release of energy from carbohydrates
 aids in fat synthesis.
Deficiency
 Uncommon under normal circumstances;
 fatigue; loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting; depression;
muscle pains; anemia.
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28. Vitamin B9: Folacin (folic acid)
Source
 Liver, kidney, dark green leafy vegetables, meats, fish,
whole grains, fortified grains and cereals, legumes, citrus
fruits.
Functions
 Aids in protein metabolism;
 promotes red blood cell formation;
 prevents birth defects of spine, brain;
Deficiency
 Anemia; sore tongue; diarrhea, irritability, headache
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29. Vitamin B12 (Cobalmin)
Source
 Found only in animal foods: meats, liver, kidney, fish,
eggs, milk and milk products, oysters, shellfish.
Functions
 Aids in building of genetic material;
 aids in development of normal red blood cells;
maintenance of nervous system.
Deficiency
 Pernicious (harmfull) anemia, anemia; neurological
disorders; degeneration of peripheral nerves that may
cause numbness, tingling in fingers and toes.
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30. 30

31. 7.2. Minerals
 Minerals are inorganic substances.
 They are not synthesized in the body.
 Minerals required by the body are obtained through the food.
 Unlike carbohydrates, fats and proteins minerals do not produce
energy.
 Since most of the minerals are water soluble they are easily
absorbed and are excreted in urine and to a lesser extent in feces.
 About 20-30 g of minerals are excreted per day.
 Based on the requirement minerals are divided into
1. Bulk minerals (macro nutrients)-are required in the diet in large
amounts i. e. greater than 100mg per day
2. Trace minerals (micro nutrients)-required in the diet in the
small amounts i.e. less than 100 mg/day 31

32. Based on required amount categories of minerals
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33. Functions of cations
Cation Functions
Ca2+ Bone formation, Blood Coagulation, Neuromusclar
activity, enzyme activator (eg. Collagenase)
Cu2+ Cofactor (Cytochrome a3)
Co2+ Active centre of Vitamin B12
Fe2+ O2 Transport & storage; cofactor of enzymes:
cytochromes
Mg2+ Kinases, etc.
Mn2+ Cofactor of enzymes: Pyruvate carboxylase, xanthine
oxidase
Zn2+ Structural Component of metaloenzymes
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34. Functions of anions
Anions major functions
Cl- Coenzyme of Amylases,
synthesis of HCl
F- Bone formation
I- T3/T4 biosynthesis
HPO4
= Bone formation, synthesis of
organic molecules: (DNA, ADP,
ATP, Phospholipids, RNA).
Phosphates serve as pH buffer
systems
Selenium Biosynthesis of Glutathione
Peroxidase
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