Gallstone disease is common, affecting 11-36% of people based on autopsy reports. Gallstones can be asymptomatic or cause biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, or other complications. The document discusses the epidemiology, types, natural history, complications, clinical features, diagnosis, and treatment of gallstone disease and acute cholecystitis. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the definitive treatment for symptomatic gallstones and acute cholecystitis to prevent future attacks or complications.
This document discusses bile duct injuries during cholecystectomy. It covers the anatomy and development of the biliary system, risk factors and mechanisms for bile duct injury, classification systems for injuries, clinical presentation, investigation, and management approaches. For injuries recognized during the initial operation, immediate open conversion and repair is recommended. For those found later, radiological imaging can evaluate and percutaneous drainage or stenting may help prior to definitive repair. The goal of surgical repair is to maintain ductal length and avoid bile leakage.
Short bowel syndrome (SBS) results from insufficient intestinal length to support nutrient absorption. It can be defined anatomically as less than 200cm of small bowel length in adults or less than 100-150cm without the colon. The main causes in developing countries are typhoid, intestinal atresias and complications of abdominal surgeries. Management involves nutritional support, medications to reduce diarrhea, and surgical procedures to increase bowel length or function. Advances include intestinal lengthening procedures and intestinal transplantation, but prevention through early management of conditions causing bowel loss remains important.
The patient is a 65-year-old male with a history of chronic pancreatitis who presents with jaundice, weight loss, clay-colored stools, and itching. On examination, he appears jaundiced and emaciated with scratch marks and a palpable mass in the right upper abdomen. Imaging shows a mass in the head of the pancreas causing dilation of the pancreatic and bile ducts. Given the clinical findings and imaging results, pancreatic cancer is suspected. Biopsy of the mass confirms pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Surgical resection offers the only chance of cure but many patients have advanced disease at presentation.
Choledochal cyst is a congenital abnormality of the biliary tree that results in dilatation of the bile ducts. It is most common in Asia, with various theories proposed for its pathogenesis including abnormalities in bile duct remodeling during embryogenesis or obstruction leading to cyst formation. Patients may present with jaundice, abdominal pain or a mass. Diagnosis is typically made using ultrasound, CT or MRCP imaging. Surgical excision of the cyst and biliary reconstruction is the primary treatment for types I-IV, while type III may be treated endoscopically and type V depends on extent of liver involvement.
The document provides information on hydatid cyst of the liver caused by the larva of the dog tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. It discusses the life cycle of the parasite, symptoms, investigations including imaging techniques, classification of cysts, treatment options including surgery, percutaneous drainage (PAIR procedure), and chemotherapy. PAIR involves puncturing the cyst, injecting a scolicidal agent, and reaspirating the contents to treat the cyst minimally invasively.
Biliary stricture is an abnormal narrowing of the bile duct. The most common cause is injury during cholecystectomy, accounting for 80% of non-malignant strictures. Bile duct injury can cause inflammation, fibrosis, scarring, and cirrhosis. Surgical treatment depends on when the injury is recognized, with immediate repair during surgery or delayed repair weeks later being options. Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy is a common repair method that involves a mucosa-to-mucosa anastomosis of the bile duct to the jejunum. Factors like multiple prior repairs, proximal strictures, and surgeon inexperience can lead to poor outcomes.
science has an evolving nature. what happened today may not be tomorrow, what is not today may happen tomorrow.
No one is complete so reading and thinking may open the door to the hidden ground.
Bile duct injuries are a complex complication seen more frequently with laparoscopic cholecystectomies due to aberrant anatomy and increased procedures. They can involve the cystic duct, gallbladder bed, or major bile ducts. Various classification systems exist to describe the level and extent of injury. Injuries may be detected intraoperatively by cholangiogram abnormalities, bile drainage from unusual locations, or anomalous anatomy. Prevention strategies include proper case selection, opening retroperitoneal folds, dissecting close to the gallbladder, achieving the critical view of safety, and using intraoperative cholangiography.
This document discusses bile duct injuries during cholecystectomy. It covers the anatomy and development of the biliary system, risk factors and mechanisms for bile duct injury, classification systems for injuries, clinical presentation, investigation, and management approaches. For injuries recognized during the initial operation, immediate open conversion and repair is recommended. For those found later, radiological imaging can evaluate and percutaneous drainage or stenting may help prior to definitive repair. The goal of surgical repair is to maintain ductal length and avoid bile leakage.
Short bowel syndrome (SBS) results from insufficient intestinal length to support nutrient absorption. It can be defined anatomically as less than 200cm of small bowel length in adults or less than 100-150cm without the colon. The main causes in developing countries are typhoid, intestinal atresias and complications of abdominal surgeries. Management involves nutritional support, medications to reduce diarrhea, and surgical procedures to increase bowel length or function. Advances include intestinal lengthening procedures and intestinal transplantation, but prevention through early management of conditions causing bowel loss remains important.
The patient is a 65-year-old male with a history of chronic pancreatitis who presents with jaundice, weight loss, clay-colored stools, and itching. On examination, he appears jaundiced and emaciated with scratch marks and a palpable mass in the right upper abdomen. Imaging shows a mass in the head of the pancreas causing dilation of the pancreatic and bile ducts. Given the clinical findings and imaging results, pancreatic cancer is suspected. Biopsy of the mass confirms pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Surgical resection offers the only chance of cure but many patients have advanced disease at presentation.
Choledochal cyst is a congenital abnormality of the biliary tree that results in dilatation of the bile ducts. It is most common in Asia, with various theories proposed for its pathogenesis including abnormalities in bile duct remodeling during embryogenesis or obstruction leading to cyst formation. Patients may present with jaundice, abdominal pain or a mass. Diagnosis is typically made using ultrasound, CT or MRCP imaging. Surgical excision of the cyst and biliary reconstruction is the primary treatment for types I-IV, while type III may be treated endoscopically and type V depends on extent of liver involvement.
The document provides information on hydatid cyst of the liver caused by the larva of the dog tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. It discusses the life cycle of the parasite, symptoms, investigations including imaging techniques, classification of cysts, treatment options including surgery, percutaneous drainage (PAIR procedure), and chemotherapy. PAIR involves puncturing the cyst, injecting a scolicidal agent, and reaspirating the contents to treat the cyst minimally invasively.
Biliary stricture is an abnormal narrowing of the bile duct. The most common cause is injury during cholecystectomy, accounting for 80% of non-malignant strictures. Bile duct injury can cause inflammation, fibrosis, scarring, and cirrhosis. Surgical treatment depends on when the injury is recognized, with immediate repair during surgery or delayed repair weeks later being options. Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy is a common repair method that involves a mucosa-to-mucosa anastomosis of the bile duct to the jejunum. Factors like multiple prior repairs, proximal strictures, and surgeon inexperience can lead to poor outcomes.
science has an evolving nature. what happened today may not be tomorrow, what is not today may happen tomorrow.
No one is complete so reading and thinking may open the door to the hidden ground.
Bile duct injuries are a complex complication seen more frequently with laparoscopic cholecystectomies due to aberrant anatomy and increased procedures. They can involve the cystic duct, gallbladder bed, or major bile ducts. Various classification systems exist to describe the level and extent of injury. Injuries may be detected intraoperatively by cholangiogram abnormalities, bile drainage from unusual locations, or anomalous anatomy. Prevention strategies include proper case selection, opening retroperitoneal folds, dissecting close to the gallbladder, achieving the critical view of safety, and using intraoperative cholangiography.
This document provides guidance on the management of CBD injuries. It discusses:
- Recognizing injuries during or after cholecystectomy and appropriate next steps like drain placement or referral.
- Surgical repair approaches like end-to-end anastomosis or biliary enteric procedures depending on the type and location of injury.
- Managing injuries presenting later as biliary strictures or leaks, often through staged approaches using external drainage first.
- Techniques for different stricture types, including exposing healthy ducts proximally and creating mucosa-to-mucosa anastomoses to distal conduits.
The document provides information on the anatomy, physiology, and common diseases of the stomach. It describes the stomach's layers, blood supply, innervation, and motor activity. It discusses acid secretion and the roles of parietal cells, gastrin, and histamine. Common benign diseases mentioned include peptic ulcer disease and gastric lymphoma. Gastric adenocarcinoma risk factors and staging are outlined. Post-gastrectomy syndromes such as dumping syndrome and afferent loop obstruction are also summarized.
This document summarizes information about carcinoma of the gallbladder. It discusses that carcinoma of the gallbladder is rare but more common in females. Risk factors include chronic inflammation from gallstones. It spreads early through lymphatics and blood vessels due to the gallbladder's anatomy. Surgical resection is the main treatment but prognosis is poor due to late stage at presentation. Adjuvant chemotherapy may improve outcomes for high-risk patients but targeted therapies have limited effectiveness for this cancer.
This document discusses biliary stone diseases and treatments. It defines difficult bile duct stones as those over 15mm or impacted. Standard treatment involves endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERC) but factors like stone size, number, and location; bile duct anatomy; and prior surgeries can make removal difficult. Methods for difficult stones include lithotripsy, balloon dilation, cholangioscopy, and dissolution, with the goal of decreasing stone size and increasing bile duct access. Complete stone removal can be achieved in most cases using various endoscopic techniques, but sometimes requires a multidisciplinary approach.
This document provides information on principles of gastrectomy, including:
- A brief history of gastrectomy procedures from the early 19th century to modern developments.
- Details on the anatomy, blood supply, lymph drainage of the stomach as relevant to gastrectomy.
- Descriptions of different types and techniques of gastrectomy for treating conditions like cancer, ulcers, and obesity.
- Information on pre-operative preparation, surgical techniques for different procedures like Billroth I and II reconstructions, and post-operative care and complications.
This document discusses intestinal fistulas, including their definition, classification, etiology, clinical presentation, investigation, and management. An intestinal fistula is an abnormal connection between two epithelial surfaces, usually involving the gut and another organ. They can be classified anatomically or based on output. Causes include surgery, inflammatory bowel disease, radiation, and trauma. Patients experience drainage, fever, and abdominal issues. Management involves resuscitation, sepsis control, nutrition support, and potentially definitive surgery after 6 weeks. The goal is to allow spontaneous closure when possible or resect the involved bowel and perform anastomosis.
Dr Bhanupriya Singh discusses various diseases of the biliary tract. The document begins by describing the anatomy of the biliary tract and related structures. It then covers imaging findings, variants, and diseases seen on MRCP. Various pathologies are discussed such as gallstones, cholangitis, choledochal cysts, Caroli disease, and hydatid cysts. Treatment options for conditions like cholangiocarcinoma are also summarized.
This document provides information on lower gastrointestinal bleeding, including its definition, classification, differential diagnosis, workup, interventions and treatments. It begins by defining lower GI bleeding as blood loss from a source distal to the Treitz ligament. It then classifies lower GI bleeding as massive, moderate or mild, and describes the criteria for massive bleeding. The document goes on to discuss the differential diagnosis, investigations and various treatment options for common causes of lower GI bleeding such as hemorrhoids and carcinoma of the rectum.
Liver abscesses result from bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections spreading to the liver. Common causes include E. coli, Klebsiella species, and Entamoeba histolytica (which causes amoebic liver abscess). Symptoms include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice. Diagnosis is often made using imaging tests like ultrasound or CT scan, which may show a target-like appearance. Treatment involves antibiotics for pyogenic abscesses or metronidazole for amoebic abscesses. Aspiration or drainage may be needed for large or complicated abscesses. Risk of mortality increases with higher bilirubin, encephalopathy, larger abscess size, and
Short bowel syndrome (SBS) is a devastating condition in which small intestinal length is inadequate and characterized clinically by inability to absorb adequate enteral nutrition to sustain normal growth and development.
Pyogenic liver abscesses are mostly caused by bacteria like E. coli and are characterized by fever, pain in the right upper quadrant, and tender hepatomegaly. They enter the liver through ascending cholangitis, portal pyemia, septicemia, or direct infection. Amoebic liver abscesses are less common and caused by Entamoeba histolytica spreading from intestinal lesions. Hydatid disease is an infection by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus tapeworm acquired from dogs that causes cysts in the liver.
The document discusses acute epigastric pain, dividing it into causes such as acute gastritis, exacerbation of duodenal ulcer, biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, and acute pancreatitis. For each cause, it describes the typical history, examination findings, diagnostic tests, and treatment approach. For example, it notes that acute gastritis is often caused by H. pylori or NSAIDs, while acute cholecystitis presents with right upper quadrant tenderness and Murphy's sign on examination. Ultrasound is useful for gallstones, while lipase checks for pancreatitis. Treatment focuses on conservative measures, though cholecystectomy may be considered for cholecystitis.
This document discusses gallstones and gallbladder disease. It begins with the anatomy of the biliary tree and gallbladder. Gallstone formation occurs when bile becomes supersaturated, causing crystals and stones to form. Stones are typically cholesterol-based or pigment-based. Complications include chronic cholecystitis, acute cholecystitis, and choledocholithiasis. Treatment involves imaging studies, antibiotics, and often laparoscopic cholecystectomy to definitively treat the condition.
The document summarizes a medical case involving a patient who presented with tenderness in the right hypochondrium. Laboratory tests revealed slightly elevated bilirubin levels and normal liver and pancreatic enzymes. Imaging found a double gallbladder with calculi. The patient underwent surgery where a bile duct cyst was discovered connected to the gallbladder, which contained well-differentiated papillary adenocarcinoma. Post-operatively drainage was bilious. The pathology report identified an anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction and chronic cholecystitis. Such junctions are associated with reflux of enzymes and may lead to choledochal cyst formation.
This document provides tips for using a PowerPoint presentation on peptic ulcer perforation. It recommends that users can freely edit and modify the slides. It also suggests showing blank slides first to elicit what students already know about each topic before presenting the content on the next slide. This active learning approach should be repeated three times for revision. The presentation is also useful for self-study. The final slides provide references and links to access the full presentation online or via mobile download.
Annular pancreas is an uncommon condition in adults.
The ring formation generally originates from the failure of
normal clockwise rotation of ventral pancreas. First
described by Tiedmann in 1818, its incidence is
1:20,000 population. It has bimodal presentation i.e is seen
either in Infants or in 4th & 5th decade of life.
Surgical management of pancreatic pseudocyst..by dr chris alumonaCHRIS ALUMONA
The document summarizes the surgical management of pancreatic pseudocysts. It presents a case study of a 40-year-old male with recurrent abdominal pain. Imaging revealed a large fluid collection in the pancreas consistent with a pseudocyst. The document then reviews the relevant anatomy, etiology, classification, pathophysiology, clinical evaluation, differential diagnosis, investigation and treatment options for pancreatic pseudocysts. Key treatment approaches discussed include conservative management, percutaneous drainage, endoscopic drainage, and surgical drainage via cystogastrostomy or cystojejunostomy.
This document discusses Mirizzi syndrome, which refers to common hepatic duct obstruction caused by an impacted gallstone. It can occur in 0.1-2.5% of gallstone cases. Large stones can impact in the cystic duct or gallbladder neck, causing mechanical obstruction or inflammation of the common hepatic duct. Patients often present with jaundice, abdominal pain, or cholangitis. Diagnosis is difficult but can be aided by imaging like MRCP or ERCP. Surgical treatment depends on the classification and may involve cholecystectomy with possible bile duct repair or bypass. Complications can include bile duct injury, bleeding, or stricture.
The document discusses cholelithiasis (gallstones) and acute cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder). It covers the prevalence and types of gallstones, risk factors, potential complications, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment options. For acute cholecystitis, conservative treatment with antibiotics and fluids is usually attempted first to resolve the inflammation before delayed cholecystectomy once symptoms subside.
This document provides an overview of gallbladder and biliary diseases. It discusses gallbladder anatomy and physiology, cholelithiasis (gallstone formation), complications of gallstones like cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, and gallbladder cancer. It also covers obstructive jaundice, describing bilirubin metabolism and different causes of obstruction like gallstones, strictures, and pancreatic masses. The clinical features of obstructive jaundice are jaundice, dark urine, pale stool and abdominal pain. Investigations include liver function tests and imaging like ultrasound or CT to identify the cause of obstruction.
This document provides guidance on the management of CBD injuries. It discusses:
- Recognizing injuries during or after cholecystectomy and appropriate next steps like drain placement or referral.
- Surgical repair approaches like end-to-end anastomosis or biliary enteric procedures depending on the type and location of injury.
- Managing injuries presenting later as biliary strictures or leaks, often through staged approaches using external drainage first.
- Techniques for different stricture types, including exposing healthy ducts proximally and creating mucosa-to-mucosa anastomoses to distal conduits.
The document provides information on the anatomy, physiology, and common diseases of the stomach. It describes the stomach's layers, blood supply, innervation, and motor activity. It discusses acid secretion and the roles of parietal cells, gastrin, and histamine. Common benign diseases mentioned include peptic ulcer disease and gastric lymphoma. Gastric adenocarcinoma risk factors and staging are outlined. Post-gastrectomy syndromes such as dumping syndrome and afferent loop obstruction are also summarized.
This document summarizes information about carcinoma of the gallbladder. It discusses that carcinoma of the gallbladder is rare but more common in females. Risk factors include chronic inflammation from gallstones. It spreads early through lymphatics and blood vessels due to the gallbladder's anatomy. Surgical resection is the main treatment but prognosis is poor due to late stage at presentation. Adjuvant chemotherapy may improve outcomes for high-risk patients but targeted therapies have limited effectiveness for this cancer.
This document discusses biliary stone diseases and treatments. It defines difficult bile duct stones as those over 15mm or impacted. Standard treatment involves endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERC) but factors like stone size, number, and location; bile duct anatomy; and prior surgeries can make removal difficult. Methods for difficult stones include lithotripsy, balloon dilation, cholangioscopy, and dissolution, with the goal of decreasing stone size and increasing bile duct access. Complete stone removal can be achieved in most cases using various endoscopic techniques, but sometimes requires a multidisciplinary approach.
This document provides information on principles of gastrectomy, including:
- A brief history of gastrectomy procedures from the early 19th century to modern developments.
- Details on the anatomy, blood supply, lymph drainage of the stomach as relevant to gastrectomy.
- Descriptions of different types and techniques of gastrectomy for treating conditions like cancer, ulcers, and obesity.
- Information on pre-operative preparation, surgical techniques for different procedures like Billroth I and II reconstructions, and post-operative care and complications.
This document discusses intestinal fistulas, including their definition, classification, etiology, clinical presentation, investigation, and management. An intestinal fistula is an abnormal connection between two epithelial surfaces, usually involving the gut and another organ. They can be classified anatomically or based on output. Causes include surgery, inflammatory bowel disease, radiation, and trauma. Patients experience drainage, fever, and abdominal issues. Management involves resuscitation, sepsis control, nutrition support, and potentially definitive surgery after 6 weeks. The goal is to allow spontaneous closure when possible or resect the involved bowel and perform anastomosis.
Dr Bhanupriya Singh discusses various diseases of the biliary tract. The document begins by describing the anatomy of the biliary tract and related structures. It then covers imaging findings, variants, and diseases seen on MRCP. Various pathologies are discussed such as gallstones, cholangitis, choledochal cysts, Caroli disease, and hydatid cysts. Treatment options for conditions like cholangiocarcinoma are also summarized.
This document provides information on lower gastrointestinal bleeding, including its definition, classification, differential diagnosis, workup, interventions and treatments. It begins by defining lower GI bleeding as blood loss from a source distal to the Treitz ligament. It then classifies lower GI bleeding as massive, moderate or mild, and describes the criteria for massive bleeding. The document goes on to discuss the differential diagnosis, investigations and various treatment options for common causes of lower GI bleeding such as hemorrhoids and carcinoma of the rectum.
Liver abscesses result from bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections spreading to the liver. Common causes include E. coli, Klebsiella species, and Entamoeba histolytica (which causes amoebic liver abscess). Symptoms include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice. Diagnosis is often made using imaging tests like ultrasound or CT scan, which may show a target-like appearance. Treatment involves antibiotics for pyogenic abscesses or metronidazole for amoebic abscesses. Aspiration or drainage may be needed for large or complicated abscesses. Risk of mortality increases with higher bilirubin, encephalopathy, larger abscess size, and
Short bowel syndrome (SBS) is a devastating condition in which small intestinal length is inadequate and characterized clinically by inability to absorb adequate enteral nutrition to sustain normal growth and development.
Pyogenic liver abscesses are mostly caused by bacteria like E. coli and are characterized by fever, pain in the right upper quadrant, and tender hepatomegaly. They enter the liver through ascending cholangitis, portal pyemia, septicemia, or direct infection. Amoebic liver abscesses are less common and caused by Entamoeba histolytica spreading from intestinal lesions. Hydatid disease is an infection by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus tapeworm acquired from dogs that causes cysts in the liver.
The document discusses acute epigastric pain, dividing it into causes such as acute gastritis, exacerbation of duodenal ulcer, biliary colic, acute cholecystitis, and acute pancreatitis. For each cause, it describes the typical history, examination findings, diagnostic tests, and treatment approach. For example, it notes that acute gastritis is often caused by H. pylori or NSAIDs, while acute cholecystitis presents with right upper quadrant tenderness and Murphy's sign on examination. Ultrasound is useful for gallstones, while lipase checks for pancreatitis. Treatment focuses on conservative measures, though cholecystectomy may be considered for cholecystitis.
This document discusses gallstones and gallbladder disease. It begins with the anatomy of the biliary tree and gallbladder. Gallstone formation occurs when bile becomes supersaturated, causing crystals and stones to form. Stones are typically cholesterol-based or pigment-based. Complications include chronic cholecystitis, acute cholecystitis, and choledocholithiasis. Treatment involves imaging studies, antibiotics, and often laparoscopic cholecystectomy to definitively treat the condition.
The document summarizes a medical case involving a patient who presented with tenderness in the right hypochondrium. Laboratory tests revealed slightly elevated bilirubin levels and normal liver and pancreatic enzymes. Imaging found a double gallbladder with calculi. The patient underwent surgery where a bile duct cyst was discovered connected to the gallbladder, which contained well-differentiated papillary adenocarcinoma. Post-operatively drainage was bilious. The pathology report identified an anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction and chronic cholecystitis. Such junctions are associated with reflux of enzymes and may lead to choledochal cyst formation.
This document provides tips for using a PowerPoint presentation on peptic ulcer perforation. It recommends that users can freely edit and modify the slides. It also suggests showing blank slides first to elicit what students already know about each topic before presenting the content on the next slide. This active learning approach should be repeated three times for revision. The presentation is also useful for self-study. The final slides provide references and links to access the full presentation online or via mobile download.
Annular pancreas is an uncommon condition in adults.
The ring formation generally originates from the failure of
normal clockwise rotation of ventral pancreas. First
described by Tiedmann in 1818, its incidence is
1:20,000 population. It has bimodal presentation i.e is seen
either in Infants or in 4th & 5th decade of life.
Surgical management of pancreatic pseudocyst..by dr chris alumonaCHRIS ALUMONA
The document summarizes the surgical management of pancreatic pseudocysts. It presents a case study of a 40-year-old male with recurrent abdominal pain. Imaging revealed a large fluid collection in the pancreas consistent with a pseudocyst. The document then reviews the relevant anatomy, etiology, classification, pathophysiology, clinical evaluation, differential diagnosis, investigation and treatment options for pancreatic pseudocysts. Key treatment approaches discussed include conservative management, percutaneous drainage, endoscopic drainage, and surgical drainage via cystogastrostomy or cystojejunostomy.
This document discusses Mirizzi syndrome, which refers to common hepatic duct obstruction caused by an impacted gallstone. It can occur in 0.1-2.5% of gallstone cases. Large stones can impact in the cystic duct or gallbladder neck, causing mechanical obstruction or inflammation of the common hepatic duct. Patients often present with jaundice, abdominal pain, or cholangitis. Diagnosis is difficult but can be aided by imaging like MRCP or ERCP. Surgical treatment depends on the classification and may involve cholecystectomy with possible bile duct repair or bypass. Complications can include bile duct injury, bleeding, or stricture.
The document discusses cholelithiasis (gallstones) and acute cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder). It covers the prevalence and types of gallstones, risk factors, potential complications, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment options. For acute cholecystitis, conservative treatment with antibiotics and fluids is usually attempted first to resolve the inflammation before delayed cholecystectomy once symptoms subside.
This document provides an overview of gallbladder and biliary diseases. It discusses gallbladder anatomy and physiology, cholelithiasis (gallstone formation), complications of gallstones like cholecystitis, choledocholithiasis, and gallbladder cancer. It also covers obstructive jaundice, describing bilirubin metabolism and different causes of obstruction like gallstones, strictures, and pancreatic masses. The clinical features of obstructive jaundice are jaundice, dark urine, pale stool and abdominal pain. Investigations include liver function tests and imaging like ultrasound or CT to identify the cause of obstruction.
This document provides an overview of alternatives to cholecystectomy for treating cholelithiasis (gallstones). It discusses the history and epidemiology of gallstone disease and outlines various nonsurgical treatment options including dissolution therapy using medications like ursodeoxycholic acid, extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy to break up stones, and percutaneous techniques to remove stones. While cholecystectomy has long been the standard treatment, this document explores less invasive alternatives that may be suitable for certain patients depending on factors like stone composition and gallbladder function.
Biliary anatomy and function, Gallstone and its complications, Cholecystitis and Tokyo guideline for the management, Mirizzi syndrome, Gallstone ileus, Carcinoma gallbladder, Choledocholithiasis and cholangitis, Choledochal cyst, Cholangiocarcinoma and Klatskin tumour and the staging system.
The document discusses gallstones and their effects, providing information on the pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical manifestations, investigations, and management of gallstone disease and complications like acute cholecystitis. Key points include that gallstones are usually asymptomatic but can cause biliary colic or lead to complications like acute cholecystitis, which is typically treated with cholecystectomy after the inflammation resolves.
Gastric outlet obstruction is caused by benign or malignant diseases that obstruct gastric emptying. Common benign causes include peptic ulcer disease while pancreatic cancer is a frequent malignant cause. Patients experience nausea, vomiting and weight loss. Diagnosis involves distinguishing functional from mechanical causes and identifying the underlying etiology. Treatment focuses on rehydration and correcting metabolic abnormalities as well as addressing the mechanical obstruction through endoscopic or surgical interventions.
The document provides information on disorders of the gallbladder and pancreas. It begins with learning objectives related to cholelithiasis, cholecystitis, pancreatitis, and surgical treatment of pancreatic tumors. Key topics covered include risk factors for cholelithiasis, clinical manifestations, diagnostic findings, medical and surgical management of gallbladder disorders, and types of acute and chronic pancreatitis. Nursing implications are also discussed for various diagnostic and treatment procedures.
This document discusses gallstone disease including etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and complications. It describes the different types of gallstones such as pigment stones, cholesterol stones, and mixed stones. Risk factors, symptoms, and potential complications are outlined. Diagnostic tools like ultrasound, CT scan, and HIDA scan are mentioned. Surgical options for gallstone treatment including cholecystostomy, subtotal cholecystectomy, open cholecystectomy, and laparoscopic cholecystectomy are summarized. Indications, procedures, and complications of cholecystectomy are also covered.
This document discusses gallstone disease including etiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and complications. It describes the different types of gallstones such as pigment stones, cholesterol stones, and mixed stones. Risk factors, symptoms, and potential complications are outlined. Diagnostic tools like ultrasound, CT scan, and HIDA scan are mentioned. Surgical options for gallstone treatment including cholecystostomy, subtotal cholecystectomy, open cholecystectomy, and laparoscopic cholecystectomy are summarized. Indications, procedures, and complications of cholecystectomy are also covered.
This document discusses cholelithiasis, or gallstones. It defines cholelithiasis as the presence of stones in the gallbladder. There are three main types of gallstones: cholesterol stones, pigment stones, and mixed stones. Cholelithiasis is mainly caused by obesity, pregnancy, gallbladder stasis, drugs, and heredity. Symptoms include pain in the upper right abdomen, abdominal bloating, and intolerance to fatty foods. Diagnosis involves abdominal ultrasound, CT scan, or X-ray. Treatments include surgical removal of the gallbladder via open surgery or laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Nursing interventions focus on pain management, monitoring for infection or
This document discusses gallstones (cholelithiasis), including their formation, types, clinical presentation, investigations, and treatment. It provides details on:
1. Cholesterol and pigment stones are the main types of gallstones, forming from excess cholesterol or bilirubin in bile.
2. Gallstones often do not cause symptoms, but can lead to biliary colic or acute cholecystitis. Symptoms include right upper quadrant pain.
3. Treatment involves cholecystectomy, which can be performed openly or laparoscopically to surgically remove the gallbladder. Laparoscopic surgery has benefits like shorter recovery.
The document discusses cholecystitis and cholelithiasis. It begins by reviewing the anatomy of the gallbladder and its connection to the liver and bile ducts. It then defines cholecystitis as inflammation of the gallbladder, which can be acute or chronic, and calculous or acalculous. The pathophysiology of calculous cholecystitis involves gallstones obstructing bile flow and damaging the gallbladder walls. Clinical features include pain in the upper right abdomen and fever. The document also defines cholelithiasis as gallstone formation, discusses the types of gallstones, risk factors like obesity and genetics, and the pathophysiology of cholesterol crystals forming in supersaturated bile and
This document discusses surgical jaundice, defined as jaundice that can be treated surgically, usually due to extrahepatic biliary obstruction. It covers the definition, causes, pathophysiology, clinical evaluation and treatment of surgical jaundice. The most common cause is gallstones, which can become lodged in the common bile duct. Physical examination may reveal jaundice and abdominal tenderness. Imaging studies can locate the obstruction and determine if it is intrahepatic or extrahepatic. Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause, often through surgery such as cholecystectomy for gallstones or bypass procedures for cancer.
Disorders of the gallbladder and biliary tract include gallstones, cholecystitis, cholangitis, and cancer. Gallstones are usually cholesterol stones in Western countries and pigment stones in Asia. Risk factors for cholesterol stones include age, female sex, obesity, and genetics. Cholecystitis occurs due to gallstone obstruction and inflammation. Obstructive lesions can cause cholangitis and secondary biliary cirrhosis. Biliary atresia is a neonatal condition requiring transplantation. Gallbladder and cholangiocarcinomas are associated with gallstones and inflammation.
The document discusses disorders of the gallbladder and extrahepatic bile ducts. It covers topics like cholelithiasis (gallstones), cholecystitis (gallbladder inflammation), choledocholithiasis (bile duct stones), cholangitis (bile duct inflammation), biliary cirrhosis, biliary atresia, gallbladder and bile duct cancers. The major points are that gallstones are a common cause of gallbladder disease in Western countries. Inflammation of the gallbladder or bile ducts can occur due to stone obstruction or infection and may lead to complications like sepsis. Biliary cirrhosis can develop from longstanding bile duct obstruction. Biliary atresia is a
The document discusses various disorders of the gallbladder and bile ducts. It describes that over 95% of biliary tract diseases are due to cholelithiasis (gallstones), which can be either cholesterol stones or pigment stones. Cholecystitis, an inflammation of the gallbladder, can be acute or chronic and is usually caused by gallstones blocking the cystic duct. Other complications of gallbladder disorders include cholangitis, an inflammation of the bile ducts, and secondary biliary cirrhosis from long-term bile duct obstruction.
The document discusses disorders of the gallbladder and extrahepatic bile ducts. It covers topics like cholelithiasis (gallstones), cholecystitis (gallbladder inflammation), choledocholithiasis (bile duct stones), cholangitis (bile duct inflammation), biliary cirrhosis, biliary atresia, gallbladder and bile duct cancers. Risk factors, pathogenesis, clinical features, and pathology of these conditions are described in detail. Surgical treatment options are also mentioned.
etiology ,classifications of gall stones & causes,risk factors,presentations, clinical examinations ,investigations including radiological (role of ERCP and MRCP ) and serological ,treatment including surgical and non surgical ,post cholecystectomy syndrome and its management ,Iindicatrions for cholecystectomy and cholecystotomy & when to perform ,complications of gall stones ,preventions of gall stone disease
This document provides an overview of acute abdomen, including causes, clinical evaluation, diagnosis, and management. Acute abdomen refers to new onset abdominal pain that requires determining if urgent intervention is needed, and can be caused by surgical, medical, or gynecological issues. A thorough history and physical exam are important for diagnosis, and may be supplemented by laboratory tests, imaging, or laparoscopy. Depending on the underlying cause, management can include surgery, antibiotics and supportive care, or discharge with conservative treatment and observation.
This document defines and classifies different types of joints in the body. It begins by explaining that a joint is the union between two or more bones that allows varying degrees of movement. There are three main classifications of joints: fibrous joints which have minimal movement; cartilaginous joints which allow slight movement; and synovial joints which allow the greatest range of movement. Within synovial joints, the document further distinguishes six types - gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket - based on their structure and the motions they permit. It concludes by defining common angular, circular, and special movements associated with different joints.
This document provides an overview of vitamins and minerals. It discusses 13 known vitamins, classifying them as either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Key details are provided on the sources, functions, and deficiency symptoms of important vitamins like A, C, D, B1, B2, B3, B6, B12, and folate. Minerals are introduced as inorganic nutrients divided into macro and trace categories. Examples like calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc are described as important cations, while anions like chloride, fluoride, phosphate, and selenium are outlined along with their major functions in the body. The document serves as an introductory chapter on vitamins and minerals for pharmacy students.
This document provides an overview of obstructive jaundice. It begins with definitions and classifications of jaundice. The anatomy and physiology of bile flow is reviewed. The main causes of obstructive jaundice are then discussed in detail, including gallstones, tumors, strictures, cysts, and more. Clinical manifestations and evaluation methods such as history, exam, imaging and labs are outlined. Finally, management approaches like surgery and stenting are covered. The presentation aims to give attendees a comprehensive understanding of obstructive jaundice.
This document discusses the evaluation and management of abdominal trauma. It notes that physical exam can be unreliable, so diagnostic adjuncts like CT scans and laparoscopy are used. Penetrating trauma like gunshot wounds usually require exploration, while stab wounds may not penetrate the abdomen. Blunt trauma is initially evaluated by FAST exam. Unstable patients undergo further tests like DPL. Surgical exploration controls bleeding and repairs injuries, using damage control techniques if the patient's physiology is unstable.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women and risk factors include hormonal influences like early menarche, late menopause, and family history, as well as non-hormonal factors like radiation exposure, alcohol consumption, high fat diet, and obesity. The document discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, genetics, screening, diagnosis, staging, and histopathology of breast cancer. Treatment options aim to prevent or reduce the risk of developing invasive breast cancer through chemoprevention, risk-reducing surgery, intensive screening, and management of early-stage disease.
This document provides an overview of wound healing and classification. It discusses the phases of wound healing including hemostasis and inflammation, proliferative phase, and maturation and remodeling. Factors affecting wound healing and healing in specific tissues like bone, cartilage, and nerves are also reviewed. Chronic wounds like ischemic, venous stasis, diabetic and pressure ulcers are described. Excess healing processes such as hypertrophic scarring, keloids, and contractures are also summarized.
C1 Medical interviewing- history taking & PE.pptxmyLord3
This document outlines the schedule and instructors for a series of clinical medicine lectures and demonstration sessions. The lectures will cover topics such as the respiratory system, cardiovascular system, locomotor system, abdomen, nervous system, and lymphoglandular system. The dates, times, responsible departments, and assigned instructors are provided for each lecture and demonstration session. The document also includes schedules assigning groups of students to ward demonstrations for different weeks as well as information on the final exam date and group assignments.
Histamine and serotonin function as neurotransmitters and local hormones. Histamine is an important mediator of allergic and inflammatory reactions that is stored in mast cells and basophils and released through immunologic or chemical means. It exerts effects through four receptor subtypes. First and second generation antihistamines competitively block histamine H1 receptors, with second generation drugs having fewer side effects like sedation. H2 receptor antagonists suppress gastric acid secretion. Third and fourth generation histamine receptor ligands may treat psychiatric and inflammatory conditions.
The document provides guidance on performing a physical examination of the abdomen. It describes dividing the abdomen into sections for inspection and outlines key steps for abdominal examination including inspection, auscultation, percussion, and palpation. Specific techniques are provided for assessing organs like the liver, spleen, and kidneys through percussion and bimanual palpation.
This document provides guidance on performing a neurologic examination, including:
1. Assessing mental status, cranial nerves, motor function, reflexes, sensory system, cerebellar function, and meningeal signs in 3 pages of detailed instructions.
2. It outlines the specific tests, procedures, and grading scales for each component of the neurologic exam.
3. The neurologic exam assesses many areas of neurologic function through tests of mental status, cranial nerves, motor skills, reflexes, sensation, coordination, and signs of meningeal irritation.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and produce urine. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until urination. The bladder expels urine through the urethra to be excreted from the body. The kidneys regulate fluid and electrolyte balance and blood pressure and produce hormones. Nephrons are the functional filtering units of the kidneys that form urine through filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Philippine Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) CurriculumMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 𝟏)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐏𝐏 𝐂𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐦 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐏𝐡𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐩𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬:
- Understand the goals and objectives of the Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan (EPP) curriculum, recognizing its importance in fostering practical life skills and values among students. Students will also be able to identify the key components and subjects covered, such as agriculture, home economics, industrial arts, and information and communication technology.
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐍𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐒𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐚𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐮𝐫:
-Define entrepreneurship, distinguishing it from general business activities by emphasizing its focus on innovation, risk-taking, and value creation. Students will describe the characteristics and traits of successful entrepreneurs, including their roles and responsibilities, and discuss the broader economic and social impacts of entrepreneurial activities on both local and global scales.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
3. Epidemiology
• Gallstone disease is one of the most common problems
affecting the digestive tract
• Autopsy reports have shown a prevalence of gallstones
from 11% to 36%
• The prevalence of gallstones is related to many factors,
including age, gender, and ethnic background
– Women are 3 times more likely to develop gallstones than
men
– First-degree relatives of patients with gallstones have a
twofold greater prevalence
3
4. Cont.
• Certain conditions predispose to the development
of gallstones
– Obesity
– Pregnancy
– Dietary factors
– Gastric surgery
– Terminal ileal resection
– Crohn’s disease
– Hereditary spherocytosis, sickle cell disease, and
thalassemia
4
5. Natural History
• Most patients will remain asymptomatic from
their gallstones throughout life
• For unknown reasons, some patients progress
to a symptomatic stage, with biliary colic
caused by a stone obstructing the cystic duct
• Symptomatic gallstone disease may progress to
complications related to the gallstones
5
6. Cont.
• Over a 20-year period, about two thirds of
asymptomatic patients with gallstones remain
symptom free
• 3% of asymptomatic individuals become
symptomatic per year (i.e., develop biliary colic)
– Once symptomatic, patients tend to have recurring
bouts of biliary colic
• Complicated gallstone disease develops in 3% to
5% of symptomatic patients per year
6
7. Cont.
• Because few patients develop complications without
previous biliary symptoms, prophylactic cholecystectomy
in asymptomatic persons with gallstones is rarely
indicated
– The rare indications
• Elderly patients with diabetes
• Populations with increased risk of GB cancer
– Porcelain gallbladder, a rare premalignant condition in which the wall of the
gallbladder becomes calcified, is an absolute indication for cholecystectomy
• Individuals who will be isolated from medical care for extended
periods of time
• HIV
• Hemolytic anemia
• Bariatric surgery
7
8. Gallstone Formation
• Gallstones form as a result of solids settling out of
solution
– The major organic solutes in bile are bilirubin, bile salts,
phospholipids, and cholesterol
• Gallstones are classified by their cholesterol content as
either cholesterol stones or pigment stones
– Pigment stones can be further classified as either black or
brown
• In Western countries, about 80% of gallstones are
cholesterol stones and about 15% to 20% are black
pigment stones
– Brown pigment stones account for only a small percentage
• Both types of pigment stones are more common in
Asia 8
9. Types
• Cholesterol Stones
– These stones are usually multiple, of variable size, and
may be hard and faceted or irregular, mulberry-shaped,
and soft
• They usually occur as single large stones with smooth surfaces
– Colors range from whitish yellow and green to black
– Pure cholesterol stones are uncommon and account for
<10% of all stones
• Most other cholesterol stones contain variable amounts of bile
pigments and calcium, but are always >70% cholesterol by
weight
– Most cholesterol stones are radiolucent (<10% are
radiopaque) 9
10. Cont.
• Cont.
– Whether pure or of mixed nature, the common primary
event in the formation of cholesterol stones is
supersaturation of bile with cholesterol
– Cholesterol is highly nonpolar and insoluble in water
and bile
– Cholesterol solubility depends on the relative
concentration of cholesterol, bile salts, and lecithin (the
main phospholipid in bile)
• Supersaturation almost always is caused by cholesterol
hypersecretion rather than by a reduced secretion of
phospholipid or bile salts
10
11. Cont.
• Cont.
– Cholesterol is held in solution by bile salt-phospholipid-
cholesterol micelles and cholesterol-phospholipid
vesicles
– The presence of vesicles and micelles in the same
aqueous compartment allows the movement of lipids
between the two
– Vesicular maturation occurs when vesicular lipids are
incorporated into micelles
– Vesicular phospholipids are incorporated into micelles
more readily than vesicular cholesterol
• Therefore, vesicles may become enriched in cholesterol,
become unstable, and then nucleate cholesterol crystals
11
12. Cont.
• Pigment Stones
– Pigment stones contain <20% cholesterol and are
dark because of the presence of calcium bilirubinate
– Black and brown pigment stones have little in
common and should be considered as separate
entities
12
13. Cont.
• Cont.
– Black pigment stones are usually small, brittle, black, and
sometimes spiculated
– They are formed by supersaturation of calcium
bilirubinate, carbonate, and phosphate, most often
secondary to hemolytic disorders such as hereditary
spherocytosis and sickle cell disease, and in those with
cirrhosis
• Unconjugated bilirubin is much less soluble than conjugated
bilirubin in bile
– Like cholesterol stones, they almost always form in the GB
13
14. Cont.
• Cont.
– Brown stones are usually <1 cm in diameter, brownish
yellow, soft, and often mushy
– They may form either in the GB or in the bile ducts, usually
secondary to bacterial infection caused by bile stasis
• Bacteria such as Escherichia coli secrete β-glucuronidase that
deconjugates bilirubin
• Precipitated calcium bilirubinate and bacterial cell bodies compose
the major part of the stone
– The stones are typically found in the biliary tree of Asian
populations and are associated with stasis secondary to
parasite infection
• In Western populations, they occur in patients with biliary strictures
or other CBD stones that cause stasis and bacterial contamination
14
15. Complications
• Acute cholecystitis
• Chronic cholecystitis
• Choledocholithiasis with or without cholangitis
• Gallstone pancreatitis
• Cholecystocholedochal fistula
• Cholecystoduodenal or cholecystoenteric fistula
leading to gallstone ileus
• Gllbladder carcinoma
15
17. Chronic Cholecystitis (Biliary Colic)
• About two thirds of patients with gallstone
disease present with chronic cholecystitis
characterized by recurrent attacks of pain, often
inaccurately labeled as biliary colic
• The pain develops when a stone obstructs the
cystic duct, resulting in a progressive increase
of tension in the gallbladder wall
17
18. Cont.
• The pathologic changes, which often do not
correlate well with symptoms, vary from an
apparently normal GB with minor chronic
inflammation in the mucosa, to a shrunken,
nonfunctioning GB with gross transmural fibrosis
and adhesions to nearby structures
– The mucosa is initially normal or hypertrophied, but
later becomes atrophied, with the epithelium protruding
into the muscle coat, leading to the formation of the so-
called Aschoff-Rokitansky sinuses
18
19. Cont.
• The chief symptom associated with symptomatic
gallstones is pain
– The pain is located in the epigastrium or RUQ and frequently
radiates to the right upper back or between the scapulae
– It is constant and increases in severity over the first half hour
or so and typically lasts 1 to 5 hours
– It is severe and comes on abruptly, typically during the night
or after a fatty meal
• Association with meals is present in only about 50% of patients
– It is episodic
• The patient suffers discrete attacks of pain, between which they feel
well
– It often is associated with nausea and sometimes vomiting
19
20. Cont.
• Cont.
– When the pain lasts >24 hours, an impacted stone in the
cystic duct or acute cholecystitis should be suspected
– An impacted stone without cholecystitis will result in
what is called hydrops of the gallbladder
• The bile gets absorbed, but the GB epithelium continues to
secrete mucus, and the GB becomes distended with mucinous
material
• The GB may be palpable but usually is not tender
• It may result in edema of the GB wall, inflammation, infection,
and perforation
– Early cholecystectomy is generally indicated to avoid complications
20
21. Cont.
• Physical examination may reveal mild RUQ
tenderness during an episode of pain
– If the patient is pain free, the physical examination is
usually unremarkable
• Laboratory values, such as WBC count and liver
function tests, are usually normal in patients
with uncomplicated gallstones
21
22. Cont.
• Atypical presentation of gallstone disease is
common
– Some patients report milder attacks of pain, but
relate it to meals
– The pain may be located primarily in the back or the
left upper or lower right quadrant
– Bloating and belching may be present and
associated with the attacks of pain
22
23. Cont.
• The diagnosis depends on the presence of typical
symptoms and the demonstration of stones on
diagnostic imaging
– An abdominal ultrasound is the standard diagnostic test
for gallstones
• Occasionally, patients with typical attacks of biliary pain have
no evidence of stones on ultrasonography
– Gallstones are occasionally identified on abdominal
radiographs or CT scans
• In these cases, if the patient has typical symptoms, an
ultrasound of the GB and the biliary tree should be added
before surgical intervention
23
24. Cont.
• Sometimes only sludge in the GB is demonstrated
on ultrasonography
– If the patient has recurrent attacks of typical biliary pain
and sludge is detected on two or more occasions,
cholecystectomy is warranted
• Cholesterolosis and adenomyomatosis of the GB
may cause typical biliary symptoms and may be
detected on ultrasonography
– In symptomatic patients, cholecystectomy is the
treatment of choice
24
25. Cont.
• Treatment
– Patients with symptomatic gallstones should be
advised to have elective laparoscopic
cholecystectomy
– While waiting for surgery, or if surgery has to be
postponed, the patient should be advised to avoid
dietary fats and large meals
25
26. Cont.
• Cont.
– Cholecystectomy, open or laparoscopic, offers
excellent long-term results
• About 90% of patients with typical biliary symptoms and
stones are rendered symptom free after cholecystectomy
– For patients with atypical symptoms or dyspepsia (flatulence,
belching, bloating, and dietary fat intolerance), the results are
not as favorable
26
27. Cont.
• Cont.
– Diabetic patients with symptomatic gallstones
should have a cholecystectomy promptly, as they
are more prone to develop acute cholecystitis that
is often severe
– Pregnant women with symptomatic gallstones who
cannot be managed expectantly with diet
modifications can safely undergo laparoscopic
cholecystectomy during the second trimester
27
28. Acute Cholecystitis
• Acute cholecystitis is secondary to gallstones in
90% to 95% of cases
– In <1% of acute cholecystitis, the cause is a tumor
obstructing the cystic duct
• Obstruction of the cystic duct by a gallstone is
the initiating event that leads to GB distention,
inflammation, and edema of the GB wall
28
29. Cont.
• In most cases, the GB wall becomes grossly
thickened and reddish with subserosal
hemorrhages
– Pericholecystic fluid often is present
– The mucosa may show hyperemia and patchy necrosis
• In severe cases (5% to 10%), the inflammatory
process progresses and leads to ischemia and
necrosis of the gallbladder wall
– More frequently, the gallstone is dislodged and the
inflammation resolves
29
30. Cont.
• If perforation occurs, it is usually contained in
the subhepatic space by the omentum and
adjacent organs
– However, free perforation with peritonitis,
intrahepatic perforation with intrahepatic
abscesses, and perforation into adjacent organs
(duodenum or colon) with cholecystoenteric fistula
may occur
30
31. Cont.
• Initially, acute cholecystitis is an inflammatory
process, probably mediated by the mucosal toxin
lysolecithin, a product of lecithin, as well as bile
salts and platelet-activating factor
– Secondary bacterial contamination is documented in
15% to 30% of patients undergoing cholecystectomy for
acute uncomplicated cholecystitis (?more than one half
will have positive cultures)
• When the GB remains obstructed and secondary bacterial
infection supervenes, an acute gangrenous cholecystitis
develops, and an abscess or empyema forms within the GB
31
32. Cont.
• When gas-forming organisms are part of the
secondary bacterial infection, gas may be seen
in the GB lumen and in the wall of the GB on
abdominal radiographs and CT scans, an entity
called an emphysematous gallbladder
32
33. Cont.
• About 80% of patients with acute cholecystitis give
a history compatible with chronic cholecystitis
• Acute cholecystitis begins as an attack of biliary
colic, but in contrast to biliary colic, the pain is
more severe and does not subside; it is
unremitting and may persist for several days
– The pain is typically in the RUQ or epigastrium and may
radiate to the right upper part of the back or the
interscapular area
– The patient is often febrile, complains of anorexia,
nausea, and vomiting, and is reluctant to move
33
34. Cont.
• Physical examination
– Focal tenderness and guarding are usually present
in the RUQ
– A Murphy’s sign, an inspiratory arrest with deep
palpation in the right subcostal area, is
characteristic
– A mass is occasionally palpable
• However, guarding may prevent this
34
35. Cont.
• In elderly patients and in those with diabetes
mellitus, acute cholecystitis may have a subtle
presentation resulting in a delay in diagnosis
– The incidence of complications is higher in these
patients, who also have approximately 10-fold the
mortality rate compared to that of younger and
healthier patients
35
36. Cont.
• CBC
– A mild to moderate leukocytosis (12,000–15,000
cells/mm3) is usually present
• However, some patients may have a normal WBC
– A high WBC count (above 20,000) is suggestive of a
complicated form of cholecystitis
• LFT
– They are usually normal, but a mild elevation of serum
bilirubin (<4 mg/mL) may be present along with mild
elevation of ALP, transaminases, and amylase
– Severe jaundice is suggestive of CBD stone or Mirizzi’s
syndrome
36
37. Cont.
• Diagnosis
– Ultrasonography is the most useful radiologic test for
diagnosing acute cholecystitis
• It has a sensitivity and specificity of 95%
• Findings
– Stones
– Thickening of the GB wall
– Pericholecystic fluid
– Sonographic Murphy ‘s sign
– HIDA scan
• May be of help in the atypical case
• A normal scan excludes acute cholecystitis
• Finding
– Lack of filling of the GB after 4 hours indicates an obstructed cystic duct
and, in the clinical setting of acute cholecystitis, is highly sensitive and
specific for acute cholecystitis
37
38. Cont.
• Cont.
– CT scan
• It demonstrates thickening of the GB wall, pericholecystic
fluid, and the presence of gallstones as well as air in the
gallbladder wall, but is less sensitive than
ultrasonography
38
39. Cont.
• Treatment
– IV fluids
– Analgesia
– Antibiotics
• The antibiotics should cover gram-negative aerobes as
well as anaerobes
– A third generation cephalosporin with good anaerobic coverage
OR
– A second-generation cephalosporin combined with
metronidazole OR
– For patients with allergies to cephalosporins, an aminoglycoside
with metronidazole
39
40. Cont.
• Cont.
– Cholecystectomy is the definitive treatment for
acute cholecystitis
• Unless the patient is unfit for surgery, early
cholecystectomy performed within 2 to 3 days of the
illness is preferred over interval or delayed
cholecystectomy that is performed 6 to 10 weeks after
initial medical treatment
– Definitive solution in one hospital admission
– Quicker recovery times
– Earlier return to work
– Similar complication rate with delayed operation
40
41. Cont.
• Cont.
– Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the procedure of
choice for acute cholecystitis
• Drawbacks
– The conversion rate to an open cholecystectomy is higher (10%–
15%) in the setting of acute cholecystitis than with chronic
cholecystitis
– The procedure is more tedious and takes longer than in the
elective setting
41
42. Cont.
• Cont.
– When patients present late, after 3 to 4 days of
illness, or if they are unfit for surgery, they can be
treated medically with laparoscopic
cholecystectomy scheduled for approximately 2
months later
• Approximately 20% of patients will fail to respond to
initial medical therapy and require an intervention
– Laparoscopic cholecystectomy could be attempted, but the
conversion rate is high and some prefer to go directly for an open
cholecystectomy
42
43. Cont.
• Cont.
– For those unfit for surgery, a percutaneous
cholecystostomy or an open cholecystostomy under
local analgesia can be performed
• For those who respond after cholecystostomy, the tube can be
removed once cholangiography through it shows a patent
ductus cysticus
– Laparoscopic cholecystectomy may then be scheduled in the near
future
• Failure to improve after cholecystostomy usually is due to
gangrene of the gallbladder or perforation
– For these patients, surgery is unavoidable
• For the rare patients who can’t tolerate surgery, the stones can
be extracted via the cholecystostomy tube before its removal
43
44. Acalculous Cholecystitis
• Acute inflammation of the GB can occur without gallstones
• It typically develops in critically ill patients in the ICU
– Patients on parenteral nutrition with extensive burns, sepsis,
major operations, multiple trauma, or prolonged illness with
multiple organ system failure
• The cause is unknown
– GB distention with bile stasis and ischemia has been implicated as
causative factors
• Pathologic examination of the GB wall reveals edema of the
serosa and muscular layers, with patchy thrombosis of
arterioles and venules
44
45. Cont.
• The symptoms and signs depend on the condition
of the patient, but in the alert patient, they are
similar to acute calculous cholecystitis
– RUQ pain and tenderness, fever, and leukocytosis
• In the sedated or unconscious patient, the clinical
features are often masked
– Fever, elevated WBC count, and elevated ALP and
bilirubin are indications for further investigation
45
46. Cont.
• Diagnosis
– Ultrasonography is usually the diagnostic test of choice
• Distended gallbladder
• Thickened GB wall
• Pericholecystic fluid
• Biliary sludge
• The presence or absence of abscess formation
– Abdominal CT scan can aid in the diagnosis
– HIDA scan can be useful
• But it’s non-specific test in patients who are fasting, on total
parenteral nutrition, or have liver disease
46
47. Cont.
• Treatment
– Acalculous cholecystitis requires urgent intervention
– Options
• Percutaneous cholecystostomy
– Ultrasound- or CT-guided
– It is the treatment of choice for these patients, as they are
usually unfit for surgery
– About 90% of patients will improve with this
• Open cholecystostomy
• Cholecystectomy
47
48. Choledocholithiasis
• Found in 6% to 12% of patients with stones in the GB
– The incidence increases with age
• About 20% to 25% in patients above the age of 60
• The vast majority of ductal stones in Western countries
are secondary stones; formed within the GB and migrate
down the cystic duct to the CBD
– These are usually cholesterol stones
• The primary stones are associated with biliary stasis and
infection and are more commonly seen in Asian
populations
48
49. Cont.
• Choledochal stones:
– May be silent and often are discovered incidentally
– They may cause obstruction (complete or incomplete)
• May manifest with cholangitis or gallstone pancreatitis
• The pain caused by a stone in the bile duct is very similar to
that of biliary colic caused by impaction of a stone in the
cystic duct
– Nausea and vomiting are common
– Jaundice
• The symptoms may be intermittent
– The stones may become completely impacted, causing severe
progressive jaundice
49
50. Cont.
• Physical examination may be normal, but mild
epigastric or RUQ tenderness as well as mild
icterus are common
• Elevation of serum bilirubin, alkaline
phosphatase, and transaminases are commonly
seen in patients with bile duct stones
– However, in about one third of patients with CBD
stones, the liver chemistries are normal
50
51. Cont.
• Ultrasonography
• A dilated common bile duct (>8 mm in diameter) in a patient with
gallstones, jaundice, and biliary pain is highly suggestive of CBD stones
• ERCP
– The gold standard for diagnosing CBD stones
• MRCP
• Endoscopic ultrasound
– As good as ERCP for detecting CBD stones (sensitivity of 91%
and specificity of 100%)
• PTC
– Frequently performed for both diagnostic and therapeutic
reasons in patients with primary bile duct stones
51
52. Cont.
• Treatment
– Endoscopic sphincterotomy ductal clearance +
laparascopic cholecystectomy
• Patients >70 years old should have their ductal stones
cleared endoscopically and they do not need to be
submitted for a cholecystectomy, as only about 15% will
become symptomatic from their GB stones
– CBD exploration (open or laparoscopic)
• T tube is left in place and a T-tube cholangiogram is
obtained before its removal
– Retained stones can be retrieved either endoscopically or via the
T-tube tract once it has matured (2–4 weeks)
52
53. Cont.
• Cont.
– Stones impacted in the ampulla may be difficult for
both endoscopic ductal clearance as well as CBD
exploration
• In these cases the CBD is usually quite dilated (about 2
cm in diameter)
• A choledochoduodenostomy or a Roux-en-Y
choledochojejunostomy may be the best option
53
54. Cont.
• Cholangitis
– It is one of the two main complications of
choledochal stones, the other being gallstone
pancreatitis
– It is an ascending bacterial infection in association
with partial or complete obstruction of the bile
ducts
54
55. Cont.
• Cont.
– Pathphysiology
• Bile in the bile ducts is kept sterile by continuous bile flow and by the
presence of antibacterial substances in bile, such as immunoglobulin
• Mechanical hindrance to bile flow facilitates bacterial contamination
• Biliary bacterial contamination alone does not lead to clinical
cholangitis
– The combination of both significant bacterial contamination and biliary
obstruction is required for its development
» Gallstones are the most common cause of obstruction
– Etiology
• The most common organisms cultured from bile in patients with
cholangitis include Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae,
Streptococcus faecalis, Enterobacter, and Bacteroides fragilis
55
56. Cont.
• Cont.
– Clinical features
• The patient with gallstone- induced cholangitis is typically older
and female
• Cholangitis may present as anything from a mild, intermittent,
and self-limited disease to a fulminant, potentially life-
threatening septicemia
• The most common presentation is fever, epigastric or RUQ
pain, and jaundice (Charcot’s triad)
– Present in about two thirds of patients
• The illness may progress rapidly with septicemia and
disorientation, known as Reynolds’ pentad (e.g., fever,
jaundice, RUQ pain, septic shock, and mental status changes)
56
57. Cont.
• Cont.
– Cont.
• The presentation may be atypical, with little if any fever,
jaundice, or pain
– This occurs most commonly in the elderly, who may have
unremarkable symptoms until they collapse with septicemia
– Patients with indwelling stents rarely become jaundiced
57
58. Cont.
• Cont.
– Diagnosis
• Leukocytosis, hyperbilirubinemia, and elevation of ALP
and transaminases are common and, when present,
support the clinical diagnosis of cholangitis
• Ultrasonography is helpful, as it will document the
presence of gallbladder stones, demonstrate dilated
ducts, and possibly pinpoint the site of obstruction;
however, rarely will it elucidate the exact cause
• CT scanning and MRI will show pancreatic and peri-
ampullary masses, if present, in addition to the ductal
dilatation
58
59. Cont.
• Cont.
– Cont.
• The definitive diagnostic test is ERC
– In cases in which ERC is not available, PTC is indicated
– Both ERC and PTC:
» Will show the level and the reason for the obstruction
» Allow culture of the bile
» Possibly allow the removal of stones if present
» Allow drainage of the bile ducts with drainage catheters or
stents
59
60. Cont.
• Cont.
– Treatment
• The initial treatment of patients with cholangitis includes IV antibiotics
and fluid resuscitation
– Most patients will respond to these measures
» About 15% of patients will not respond, and an emergency biliary
decompression may be required
• The obstructed bile duct must be drained as soon as the patient has
been stabilized
– One of the following approaches (selection based on the level and the nature
of the biliary obstruction)
» Endoscopically
» Via the percutaneous transhepatic route
» Surgically (with a T tube)
• Definitive operative therapy should be deferred until the cholangitis
has been treated and the proper diagnosis established
60
61. Cont.
• Cont.
– Prognosis
• Acute cholangitis is associated with an overall mortality
rate of approximately 5%
• When associated with renal failure, cardiac impairment,
hepatic abscesses, and malignancies, the morbidity and
mortality rates are much higher
61
62. Cont.
• Biliary Pancreatitis
– Obstruction of the pancreatic duct by an impacted
stone or temporary obstruction by a stone passing
through the ampulla may lead to pancreatitis
– An ultrasonogram of the biliary tree in patients with
pancreatitis is essential
• If gallstones are present and the pancreatitis is severe, an ERC
with sphincterotomy and stone extraction may abort the
episode of pancreatitis
– Once the pancreatitis has subsided, the GB should be removed
during the same admission
• When gallstones are present and the pancreatitis is mild and
self-limited, the stone has probably passed
– For these patients, a cholecystectomy and an intraoperative
cholangiogram or a preoperative ERC is indicated
62
64. Cholecystostomy
• Decompresses and drains the distended, inflamed,
hydropic, or purulent GB
• It is applicable if the patient is not fit to tolerate an
abdominal operation
• Options
– Ultrasound-guided percutaneous cholecystostomy (Drainage
with a pigtail catheter)
• It is the procedure of choice
• Through the abdominal wall, the liver, and into the GB
– By passing the catheter through the liver, the risk of bile leak around the
catheter is minimized
– Open cholecystostomy under LA
• The GB can be removed later, if indicated, usually by
laparoscopy
64
66. Cholecystectomy
• Carl Langenbuch performed the first successful
cholecystectomy in 1882
• Laparascopic Vs. Open
– Today, laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the treatment of
choice for symptomatic gallstones
– Open cholecystectomy has become an uncommon
procedure, usually performed either as a conversion from
laparoscopic cholecystectomy or as a second procedure in
patients who require laparotomy for another reason
• Absolute contraindications for the procedure are:
– Uncontrolled coagulopathy
– End-stage liver disease 66
67. Cont.
• Intraoperative Cholangiogram
– The bile ducts are visualized under fluoroscopy by
injecting contrast through a catheter placed in the
cystic duct
– Their size can then be evaluated, the presence or
absence of CBD stones assessed, and filling defects
confirmed, as the dye passes into the duodenum
67
68. Cont.
• Cont.
– Routine intraoperative cholangiography
• It will detect stones in approximately 7% of patients, as
well as outlining the anatomy and detecting injury
– Selective intraoperative cholangiography
• Jaundice
• Pancreatitis
• History of abnormal liver function tests
• A dilated duct on preoperative ultrasonography
68
69. Other procedures
• CBD exploration
• Common bile duct drainage procedures
– Choledochoduodenostomy
– Choledochojejunostomy
• By bringing up a 45-cm Roux-en-Y limb of jejunum
– Hepaticojejunostomy
• Transduodenal sphincterotomy
69
Cholesterolosis is caused by the accumulation of cholesterol in macrophages in the gallbladder mucosa, either locally or as polyps
It produces the classic macroscopic appearance of a “strawberry gallbladder”
Adenomyomatosis or cholecystitis glandularis proliferans is characterized on microscopy by hypertrophic smooth muscle bundles
and by the ingrowths of mucosal glands into the muscle layer