Vision disorder
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The document discusses visual disability, impairment, and blindness. It defines visual disorder, disability, and impairment, and notes the types of blindness include partial and complete. Partial blindness means limited vision, while complete blindness means inability to see anything. Causes can be systemic like diabetes or specific eye conditions. Treatment involves visual aids, corrective lenses, smart canes, screen magnifiers, Braille keyboards, controlling underlying conditions, occupational therapy, and surgery.
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Anomalies of accommodation, convergence & its management
This document discusses various anomalies of accommodation and convergence that can cause asthenopia (eye strain) including presbyopia, accommodative insufficiency, ill-sustained accommodation, accommodation inertia, paralysis and spasm of accommodation, as well as convergence insufficiency, paralysis, and spasm. It describes the causes, clinical features, and treatment options for each condition. The management typically involves optical correction, orthoptic exercises, and in some cases surgery to improve binocular vision and reduce symptoms.
Sensory disorder
Sensory processing disorder is a condition where the brain has trouble processing sensory information from the environment. It used to be called sensory integration dysfunction. People with sensory processing disorder may be oversensitive to sounds or touch. They may also have problems with coordination, spatial awareness, conversation, and play. Sensory processing problems often affect children but can also affect adults, and are commonly seen with autism. While not officially recognized as its own disorder, many experts believe sensory processing disorder should be.
Sensory disorder
It is about the blindness disorder. It tells the differences types of blindness, the causes,symptoms and the treatment
13 blindness
Blindness is defined as the absence of light perception and can be partial or complete. It has several causes including congenital defects, diseases like diabetes and glaucoma, accidents, and complications of eye surgery or premature birth. Blindness is assessed by examining visual acuity, visual fields, contrast sensitivity, and refraction, and is managed using low-vision aids like magnifiers, telescopes, and electronic reading systems, as well as large print materials and writing aids. Surgeries and transplantation are also used in some cases.
Low vision rehabilitation
Provides information about basics of low vison rehabilitation of patient with central and peripheral visual field
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Anomalies of accommodation, convergence & its management
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Autonomic nervous system pharmacology
This document summarizes several cholinergic and adrenergic drugs, including their mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, adverse effects, and contraindications. It describes cholinoceptor agonists like pilocarpine and bethanechol that are used for various eye and gastrointestinal conditions. It also discusses cholinesterase inhibitors like neostigmine, edrophonium, and physostigmine and how they are used for myasthenia gravis, ileus, and poisoning. Anticholinergic drugs summarized include atropine, scopolamine, and ipratropium. Various adrenergic receptor agonists and antagonists are also outlined such as epinephrine, dopamine,
Pronator muscles anatomy and strengthening
This document discusses pronation and exercises for strengthening the pronator muscles. Pronation is the rotation of the forearm so the palm faces downward. The main pronator muscles are the pronator teres and pronator quadratus muscles. Resisted exercises involve stabilizing the humerus while resisting pronation motion. Assisted exercises help guide pronation with minimal resistance. Free exercises allow practicing pronation in functional tasks like pouring or turning a door handle.
suspension therapy and usage
This document discusses different methods of suspension used to support parts of the body during movement or exercise. It describes various types of fixed points, ropes, slings, and clips that can be used. Key methods discussed include vertical fixation to limit movement around a central point and axial fixation to allow pure angular movements around a joint by attaching all ropes to a single point directly above the joint. Examples are provided of suspending the lower extremity to isolate hip abduction and adduction movements.
kinesiology basics
PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) is a technique that uses stimulation of proprioceptors to facilitate muscle response and increase range of motion. The hold-relax technique is a key part of PNF. It involves isometric contraction of the hypertonic muscle or its antagonist, holding for 15 seconds then relaxing. This lengthens the hypertonic muscle and increases range of motion.
To treat right torticollis, the therapist stands behind the patient in sitting and cups one hand under the chin while the other applies resistance to side flexion and rotation to the right.
Poor posture is caused by insufficient and unnecessary muscle effort. To re-educate posture, relaxation, mobility,
Embryology limb defects
This document discusses various congenital limb defects including:
- Meromelia which is the partial absence of a limb
- Amelia which is the complete absence of a limb
- Phocomelia where the long bones are absent and the hands/feet are attached to the trunk
- Micomelia where all limbs are present but abnormally short
The causes of many limb defects are genetic mutations affecting genes like HOXD13, TBX5, COL1A1, COL1A2, and fibrillin. Environmental factors like vascular problems in utero can also lead to transverse limb deficiencies.
Twins (embryology)
Twin pregnancy occurs when a woman carries two fetuses at the same time. There are two types of twins: monozygotic (identical) twins, which develop from the splitting of a single zygote, and dizygotic (fraternal) twins, which develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm. Monozygotic twins share the same placenta and have identical DNA, while dizygotic twins have separate placentas and are no more genetically similar than normal siblings. The document further details the development and characteristics of both types of twins.
lower limb anatomy MCQs
The document contains 25 multiple choice questions related to anatomy of the lower limb. It tests knowledge of muscles, nerves, arteries, ligaments and joints of the lower limb including the hip, thigh, knee and leg regions. Key structures assessed include the femoral nerve, profunda femoral artery, illiotibial tract, obturator nerve, common fibular nerve, hip joint, sacral plexus and sciatic nerve.
Tens transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator
TENS, or transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, is a non-invasive method of pain relief using a device that sends electrical pulses to nerves under the skin via electrodes. There are four parameters that can be adjusted: pulse shape, pulse width, frequency, and intensity. TENS is commonly used to treat both acute and chronic pain conditions like back pain, arthritis, and sports injuries. Electrodes are placed on or near painful areas or trigger points and treatment sessions typically last less than 40 minutes daily. High and low TENS frequencies have different common parameter settings. Precautions are taken to avoid electrolyte reactions or use of TENS on certain body areas or for people with medical contraindications.
Pharmaco dyanamics studies
This document discusses pharmacodynamics, which is the study of how drugs act on the body and produce their effects. It describes several key concepts:
1. Drugs act by interacting with receptors or enzymes in tissues. Common sites of action include receptors, ion channels, and enzymes.
2. The mechanism of action describes how a drug modifies physiological or biochemical functions at the molecular level, such as by activating or inhibiting receptors.
3. Pharmacological effects refer to the physiological or biochemical changes caused by drugs, including their therapeutic and toxic effects. Drugs can stimulate or depress functions and may have agonistic, antagonistic, or other complex effects.
4. Several signaling pathways are involved in how receptors
Renin angiotensin system
This document discusses drugs that inhibit the renin-angiotensin system for treating hypertension and other conditions. It describes how ACE inhibitors work by inhibiting the angiotensin converting enzyme and decreasing angiotensin II formation, while also increasing bradykinin levels. Angiotensin receptor blockers competitively block the angiotensin II receptor. Both classes lower blood pressure by vasodilation and reduced sodium retention. They are used to treat hypertension, heart failure, diabetic nephropathy, and myocardial infarction. Adverse effects include hypotension, hyperkalemia, and cough with ACE inhibitors.
Directly acting vasodilators
Directly acting vasodilators include oral and parenteral drugs that act to dilate arteries and veins. Oral vasodilators include hydralazine and minoxidil which increase blood pressure by activating the renin-angiotensin system and sympathetic nervous system. Parenteral vasodilators such as sodium nitroprusside are used for hypertensive emergencies and directly cause vasodilation. These vasodilators are often used with beta blockers and diuretics to prevent reflex tachycardia and fluid retention respectively. Common side effects include headache, flushing, and tachycardia due to increased sympathetic activity.
Antihypertensives
This document discusses drug treatment for hypertension. It begins by defining hypertension and classifying it by severity based on systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings. The causes of primary and secondary hypertension are explained. Blood pressure regulation involves the renin-angiotensin system and is controlled by both short-term mechanisms like the autonomic nervous system and long-term mechanisms like fluid volume regulation. The major classes of antihypertensive drugs are described including diuretics, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and others. Lowering blood pressure reduces risks of heart disease, stroke, kidney failure and other complications. Treatment involves lifestyle modifications and drug therapy tailored to a patient's risk level.
Bone pathology
Myelomeningocele is a type of spina bifida where the backbone and spinal canal do not fully close before birth, resulting in a sac-like protrusion of the spinal cord and meninges through the defect. It is the most common and severe type of spina bifida and can cause paralysis, loss of bladder/bowel control, and other neurological issues. Discitis is an infection of the intervertebral disc that causes severe back pain and lack of mobility. Erb's palsy is paralysis of the arm caused by injury to the brachial plexus nerves during difficult childbirth, resulting in weakness and loss of movement in the arm.
The limbic system and the hypothalamus
The document summarizes the structure and function of the reticular formation and limbic system. It discusses how the reticular formation activates the cerebrum through direct stimulation and neurohormonal systems. It describes various neurohormonal systems like the locus ceruleus-norepinephrine system and raphe nuclei-serotonin system. It then discusses the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, and their roles in emotional behavior, motivational drives, and regulating internal body functions. Key limbic structures and their functions in aggression, fear, feeding, reward, and punishment are also outlined.
Vestibular apparatus
The vestibular apparatus contains the macula of the utricle and saccule, which detect linear acceleration and head position, and the semicircular canals, which detect rotational acceleration of the head. Hair cells in the macula and canals signal the vestibular nerve and transmit signals to the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. These centers integrate vestibular signals with visual and proprioceptive information to maintain balance and stabilize eye movements through pathways to the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.
Hypothalmus& thalmus
The hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland and brainstem and controls many functions important for homeostasis like appetite, body temperature, fluid balance, and hormone production. It regulates these functions through releasing/inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary as well as hormones like ADH and oxytocin. The thalamus is a relay station that integrates sensory information and distributes it to other brain areas like the cortex and hypothalamus. It contains nuclei that process specific senses and is involved in voluntary movement and personality.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex has several association areas that perform different functions. The left hemisphere is specialized for language and analytical abilities in most right-handed individuals, while the right hemisphere is specialized for visuospatial abilities. Damage to different areas can cause different types of aphasias by disrupting language abilities. The hippocampus and medial temporal lobe are important for forming new memories and consolidating them into long-term memory. Alzheimer's disease involves the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, leading to memory loss and cognitive decline.
Cerebral blood flow
The cerebral circulation supplies blood to the brain through arteries like the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Blood flow is regulated by factors like carbon dioxide, oxygen, and chemicals released by astrocytes. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the brain ventricles at a rate of 500 mL per day and circulates through the subarachnoid space, cushioning the brain. Abnormal CSF pressure can cause issues like hydrocephalus or papilledema, and may be treated with shunts or lumbar punctures.
Cerebellum physiology
The cerebellum is located behind the brainstem and contains only 10% of the brain's volume. It receives input from muscles, joints, and the motor cortex, and provides corrective signals to the motor cortex to coordinate voluntary movement. The cerebellum evaluates and adjusts motor movements, integrating sensory information to ensure balance and motor learning. Damage to different parts of the cerebellum results in difficulties with coordination, posture, movement timing and sequencing.
Basal ganglia physiology
The basal ganglia consist of several structures including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. They are located within the cerebral hemispheres and are involved in motor control and cognition. Two main circuits exist - the putamen circuit for executing movements and the caudate circuit for cognitive motor control. Diseases that impact the basal ganglia like Parkinson's and Huntington's result from dysfunction of neurotransmitter pathways and can cause both hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movement disorders. Common treatments involve replacing dopamine or modifying basal ganglia circuitry.
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Vision disorder
- 1. SPECIAL EDUCATION VISUAL DISABILITY AND IMPAIRMENT
- 3. VISUAL DISORDER: It refers to anatomical changes in the visual organs caused by diseases of eye VISUAL DISABILITY : it refers to vision related changes in the skill and abilities of an individual VISUAL IMPAIRMENT: refers to functional loss that results from visual disorder VISUAL HANDICAP: refers to psychosocial and economic consequences of visual loss such as independence and inability of work
- 4. TYPES OF BLINDNESS partial blindness Complete blindness 1:Partial blindness: it means very limited vision the person with partial blindness cannot see at normal viewing distance Types: Hyperopia Myopia Colour blind • Mild • Moderate • Severe
- 8. COMPLETE BLINDNESS: It means disability of a person to see anything The person with complete blindness cannot see light SYMPTOMS : • Head ache while reading • Hold reading material close • Uncomfortable in sunlight • Double or triple vision • Pain and pressure in eye • Redness in eye • Colour become faded
- 9. CAUSES : SYSTEMIC CONDITIONS Diabetes Hypertension (high blood pressure) Cerebrovascular disease or stroke Atherosclerotic disease (cholesterol deposits in blood vessels, including those of the eye) Vitamin A deficiency Infections involving the eyes
- 10. SPECIFIC CAUSES : Macular degeneration - degeneration of central part of retina Cataracts- clouding of lens of eye Glaucoma – damage to the nerve connecting eye to brain Eye injury Tumors involving eye
- 11. TREATMENT: VISUAL AIDS Special equipments Corrective lens or glasses Smart cane Screen magnifier Braille keyboard Control of diabetes and blood pressure Vitamin A intake Occupational therapy Sensory awareness and mobility training Laser treatment surgery