Embryology limb defects
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This document discusses various congenital limb defects including: - Meromelia which is the partial absence of a limb - Amelia which is the complete absence of a limb - Phocomelia where the long bones are absent and the hands/feet are attached to the trunk - Micomelia where all limbs are present but abnormally short The causes of many limb defects are genetic mutations affecting genes like HOXD13, TBX5, COL1A1, COL1A2, and fibrillin. Environmental factors like vascular problems in utero can also lead to transverse limb deficiencies.
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lower limb anatomy MCQs
The document contains 25 multiple choice questions related to anatomy of the lower limb. It tests knowledge of muscles, nerves, arteries, ligaments and joints of the lower limb including the hip, thigh, knee and leg regions. Key structures assessed include the femoral nerve, profunda femoral artery, illiotibial tract, obturator nerve, common fibular nerve, hip joint, sacral plexus and sciatic nerve.
Vision disorder
The document discusses visual disability, impairment, and blindness. It defines visual disorder, disability, and impairment, and notes the types of blindness include partial and complete. Partial blindness means limited vision, while complete blindness means inability to see anything. Causes can be systemic like diabetes or specific eye conditions. Treatment involves visual aids, corrective lenses, smart canes, screen magnifiers, Braille keyboards, controlling underlying conditions, occupational therapy, and surgery.
Tens transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator
TENS, or transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, is a non-invasive method of pain relief using a device that sends electrical pulses to nerves under the skin via electrodes. There are four parameters that can be adjusted: pulse shape, pulse width, frequency, and intensity. TENS is commonly used to treat both acute and chronic pain conditions like back pain, arthritis, and sports injuries. Electrodes are placed on or near painful areas or trigger points and treatment sessions typically last less than 40 minutes daily. High and low TENS frequencies have different common parameter settings. Precautions are taken to avoid electrolyte reactions or use of TENS on certain body areas or for people with medical contraindications.
Pharmaco dyanamics studies
This document discusses pharmacodynamics, which is the study of how drugs act on the body and produce their effects. It describes several key concepts:
1. Drugs act by interacting with receptors or enzymes in tissues. Common sites of action include receptors, ion channels, and enzymes.
2. The mechanism of action describes how a drug modifies physiological or biochemical functions at the molecular level, such as by activating or inhibiting receptors.
3. Pharmacological effects refer to the physiological or biochemical changes caused by drugs, including their therapeutic and toxic effects. Drugs can stimulate or depress functions and may have agonistic, antagonistic, or other complex effects.
4. Several signaling pathways are involved in how receptors
Renin angiotensin system
This document discusses drugs that inhibit the renin-angiotensin system for treating hypertension and other conditions. It describes how ACE inhibitors work by inhibiting the angiotensin converting enzyme and decreasing angiotensin II formation, while also increasing bradykinin levels. Angiotensin receptor blockers competitively block the angiotensin II receptor. Both classes lower blood pressure by vasodilation and reduced sodium retention. They are used to treat hypertension, heart failure, diabetic nephropathy, and myocardial infarction. Adverse effects include hypotension, hyperkalemia, and cough with ACE inhibitors.
Directly acting vasodilators
Directly acting vasodilators include oral and parenteral drugs that act to dilate arteries and veins. Oral vasodilators include hydralazine and minoxidil which increase blood pressure by activating the renin-angiotensin system and sympathetic nervous system. Parenteral vasodilators such as sodium nitroprusside are used for hypertensive emergencies and directly cause vasodilation. These vasodilators are often used with beta blockers and diuretics to prevent reflex tachycardia and fluid retention respectively. Common side effects include headache, flushing, and tachycardia due to increased sympathetic activity.
Antihypertensives
This document discusses drug treatment for hypertension. It begins by defining hypertension and classifying it by severity based on systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings. The causes of primary and secondary hypertension are explained. Blood pressure regulation involves the renin-angiotensin system and is controlled by both short-term mechanisms like the autonomic nervous system and long-term mechanisms like fluid volume regulation. The major classes of antihypertensive drugs are described including diuretics, beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and others. Lowering blood pressure reduces risks of heart disease, stroke, kidney failure and other complications. Treatment involves lifestyle modifications and drug therapy tailored to a patient's risk level.
Bone pathology
Myelomeningocele is a type of spina bifida where the backbone and spinal canal do not fully close before birth, resulting in a sac-like protrusion of the spinal cord and meninges through the defect. It is the most common and severe type of spina bifida and can cause paralysis, loss of bladder/bowel control, and other neurological issues. Discitis is an infection of the intervertebral disc that causes severe back pain and lack of mobility. Erb's palsy is paralysis of the arm caused by injury to the brachial plexus nerves during difficult childbirth, resulting in weakness and loss of movement in the arm.
The limbic system and the hypothalamus
The document summarizes the structure and function of the reticular formation and limbic system. It discusses how the reticular formation activates the cerebrum through direct stimulation and neurohormonal systems. It describes various neurohormonal systems like the locus ceruleus-norepinephrine system and raphe nuclei-serotonin system. It then discusses the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, and their roles in emotional behavior, motivational drives, and regulating internal body functions. Key limbic structures and their functions in aggression, fear, feeding, reward, and punishment are also outlined.
Vestibular apparatus
The vestibular apparatus contains the macula of the utricle and saccule, which detect linear acceleration and head position, and the semicircular canals, which detect rotational acceleration of the head. Hair cells in the macula and canals signal the vestibular nerve and transmit signals to the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. These centers integrate vestibular signals with visual and proprioceptive information to maintain balance and stabilize eye movements through pathways to the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.
Hypothalmus& thalmus
The hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland and brainstem and controls many functions important for homeostasis like appetite, body temperature, fluid balance, and hormone production. It regulates these functions through releasing/inhibiting hormones that control the pituitary as well as hormones like ADH and oxytocin. The thalamus is a relay station that integrates sensory information and distributes it to other brain areas like the cortex and hypothalamus. It contains nuclei that process specific senses and is involved in voluntary movement and personality.
Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex has several association areas that perform different functions. The left hemisphere is specialized for language and analytical abilities in most right-handed individuals, while the right hemisphere is specialized for visuospatial abilities. Damage to different areas can cause different types of aphasias by disrupting language abilities. The hippocampus and medial temporal lobe are important for forming new memories and consolidating them into long-term memory. Alzheimer's disease involves the accumulation of beta-amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, leading to memory loss and cognitive decline.
Cerebral blood flow
The cerebral circulation supplies blood to the brain through arteries like the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Blood flow is regulated by factors like carbon dioxide, oxygen, and chemicals released by astrocytes. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the brain ventricles at a rate of 500 mL per day and circulates through the subarachnoid space, cushioning the brain. Abnormal CSF pressure can cause issues like hydrocephalus or papilledema, and may be treated with shunts or lumbar punctures.
Cerebellum physiology
The cerebellum is located behind the brainstem and contains only 10% of the brain's volume. It receives input from muscles, joints, and the motor cortex, and provides corrective signals to the motor cortex to coordinate voluntary movement. The cerebellum evaluates and adjusts motor movements, integrating sensory information to ensure balance and motor learning. Damage to different parts of the cerebellum results in difficulties with coordination, posture, movement timing and sequencing.
Basal ganglia physiology
The basal ganglia consist of several structures including the caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, substantia nigra, and subthalamic nucleus. They are located within the cerebral hemispheres and are involved in motor control and cognition. Two main circuits exist - the putamen circuit for executing movements and the caudate circuit for cognitive motor control. Diseases that impact the basal ganglia like Parkinson's and Huntington's result from dysfunction of neurotransmitter pathways and can cause both hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movement disorders. Common treatments involve replacing dopamine or modifying basal ganglia circuitry.
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Embryology limb defects
- 2. Congenital Limb Deformities: Congenital limb deformities are birth defects in which a fetus’s limbs do not form properly while in uterus Following are the possibilities • A baby may be have missing limbs • A baby may be have extra limb • Over growth of limb • Under growth of limb • fingers or toes may fail to separate
- 3. MEROMELIA : Partial absent on limb AMELIA: Complete absence of a limb
- 4. PHOCOMELIA: Long bones are absent Hand or feet attached to trunk MICROMElIA: all limbs are present but abnormally short
- 5. BRACHYDACTYLY: Short digits of hand and foot SYNDACTYLY Fused fingers and toes
- 6. POLYDACTYLY: The presence of extra finger or toe ECTRODACTYLY: Absence of digits
- 7. CLEFT HAND AND FOOT Consist of a cleft between 2nd and 4th Metacarpal bone 3rd metacarpal is absent Thumb, index finger ,4th and 5th finger is fused CAUSES : Mutation in the HOXD13 gene results in hand – foot –genital syndrome
- 8. HOLT –ORAM SYNDROME: Upper limb abnormalities heart defects Absent digits Absent radius Hypoplasia Polydactyly Syndactyly CAUSES: mutation in TBX5 gene
- 9. OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA: Shortening ,bowing and hypomineralization Of long bones It can cause fractures Causes: Mutation in COL1A1 OR COL1A2 gene that form type 1 collagen
- 10. MARFAN SYNDROME : Individuals are long slender Long thin limbs Long thin face CAUSES: Mutation in fibrillin CLUB FOOT : Foot pointed downward Foot is rotated toward the other foot Cause : mutation of PITX1 gene
- 11. CONGENITAL ABSENCE OF RADIUS : Radius is absent CRANIOSYNOSTOSIS RADIAL APLASIA SYNDROME : (Beller Gerold syndrome) They have stenosis of one or more Cranial sutures Absence of radius
- 12. TRANSVERSE LIMB DEFICIENCIES : Proximal structures are intact Structures distal to transverse plane are Partially or completely absent CAUSES : Vascular thrombosis Vasoconstriction CONGENITAL HIP DISLOCATION : Under development of acetabulum And head of femur Common in female newborns Occur after birth