The document describes the anatomy and physiology of the urinary system. It discusses the key parts which include the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which are the functional units that filter blood to form urine. Urine is produced via glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and secretion. The kidneys play important roles in regulating water balance, electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance in the body.
This was done as a Student presentation on the kidney.
Here following topics are covered.
Macroscopic structure of the urinary system
Microscopic anatomy of the urinary system
Functions of the nephron
Renal blood supply
Kidneys and blood pressure regulation
Structure of ureters and urinary bladder to perform its function
Renal failure
This was done as a Student presentation on the kidney.
Here following topics are covered.
Macroscopic structure of the urinary system
Microscopic anatomy of the urinary system
Functions of the nephron
Renal blood supply
Kidneys and blood pressure regulation
Structure of ureters and urinary bladder to perform its function
Renal failure
The urinary system, components, the urine formation process, The gross structure of the kidney, Microscope structure of the kidney, Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH.
- Introduction
- Normal anatomy of kidney
- Nephron
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus
- Clearance
- tubular function
- Regulation of water and ion reabsorption
- Types of water reabsorption
- Mechanism of urine concentration and dilution
- Countercurrent mechanism
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule.
The urinary system, components, the urine formation process, The gross structure of the kidney, Microscope structure of the kidney, Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH.
- Introduction
- Normal anatomy of kidney
- Nephron
- Juxtaglomerular apparatus
- Clearance
- tubular function
- Regulation of water and ion reabsorption
- Types of water reabsorption
- Mechanism of urine concentration and dilution
- Countercurrent mechanism
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body.
The nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and an encompassing Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule.
The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product. The organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra. The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy.
BP201T. Human Anatomy And Physiology-II
Unit-III: - Urinary System.
Anatomy of urinary tract with special reference to anatomy of kidney and
nephrons, functions of kidney and urinary tract, physiology of urine formation,
micturition reflex and role of kidneys in acid base balance, role of RAS in kidney
and disorders of kidney.
Kidney and urinary system parts and their functionskeerthikrishna41
The urinary system's function is to filter blood and create urine as a waste by-product. The organs of the urinary system include the kidneys, renal pelvis, ureters, bladder and urethra.
The body takes nutrients from food and converts them to energy. After the body has taken the food components that it needs, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in the blood.
The kidney and urinary systems help the body to eliminate liquid waste called urea, and to keep chemicals, such as potassium and sodium, and water in balance. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys, where it is removed along with water and other wastes in the form of urine.The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney.Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.Two ureters. These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters.Bladder. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of urine for two to five hours.
Upon examination, specific "landmarks" are used to describe the location of any irregularities in the bladder. These are:
Trigone: a triangle-shaped region near the junction of the urethra and the bladder
Right and left lateral walls: walls on either side of the trigone
Posterior wall: back wall
Two sphincter muscles. These circular muscles help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
Nerves in the bladder. The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder.
Urethra. This tube allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to rel
1 GNM Anatomy - Unit - 8 Excretory system.pptxthiru murugan
By:M. Thiru murugan
Unit – 8:
Structure and functions of the kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
Formation and composition of urine.
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Structure and functions of the skin.
Regulation of the body temperature.
Excretory system:
The excretory system is performs the function of excretion
It is the process of removing the wastes
There are several parts of the body that are involved in this process such as sweat glands, the liver, the lungs and the kidney system
Kidney:
The kidneys are a bean-shaped organs - found abdominal cavity, just below the rib cage.
The right kidney is slightly lower than the left because of the position of the liver.
Every human has two kidneys.
Diagram of Renal System
Structure of kidney:
Kidney consist of 3 basic parts
Renal cortex (outer layer )
Renal medulla (inner layer )
Renal pelvis.
Renal cortex:
The renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidney, it is covered with capsule
Erythropoietin a hormone is produced in the renal cortex (Erythropoiesis)
Renal medulla:
Renal medulla is the inner layer of the kidney. The medulla consists of multiple pyramidal tissue masses, called the renal pyramids, which are triangle structures that contain a network of nephrons
Renal pelvis:
The renal pelvis contains the hilum.
The hilum is the concave part of the bean-shape where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney
It is also the point of exit for the ureters carry urine away from the kidney
Both of the ureters supply the urine into urinary bladder,
From there, urine is expelled through the urethra and out of the body.
The blood arrives at the kidney via the renal artery, renal veins collect deoxygenated blood
Nephron:
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
It is composed of renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.
Parts of Nephron:
Renal corpuscle (glomerulus within bowman's capsule)
Proximal convoluted tubule
Intermediate tubule (loop of Henle)
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting ducts
1. The Glomerulus:
The glomerulus is receives blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation.
Here, fluid and solutes are filtered out of the blood and into the space made by Bowman’s capsule.
A group of specialized cells known as juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) are located around the afferent arteriole where it enters the renal corpuscle. The JGA secretes an enzyme called renin, it is involved in the process of blood volume homeostasis (Bp).
2. Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
The proximal tubule is the first site of water reabsorption into the bloodstream, and the site where the majority of water and salt reabsorption takes place.
3. The Loop of Henle:
The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that consists of a descending limb and ascending limb. It transfers fluid from the proximal to the distal tubule
4. Distal Convoluted Tubule:
The distal convoluted tubule is the final site of reabsorption in the nephron.
5. Collecting Duct:
The collecting duct
Excretory system and its brief discussionরেজা তানজিল
The excretory system is a passive biological system that removes excess, unnecessary materials from the body fluids of an organism, so as to help maintain internal chemical homeostasis and prevent damage to the body. The dual function of excretory systems is the elimination of the waste products of metabolism and to drain the body of used up and broken down components in a liquid and gaseous state. In humans and other amniotes (mammals, birds and reptiles) most of these substances leave the body as urine and to some degree exhalation, mammals also expel them through sweating.
Only the organs specifically used for the excretion are considered a part of the excretory system. In the narrow sense, the term refer to the urinary system. However, as excretion involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used in more formal classifications of anatomy or function.
As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system. Breaking down of one of more of the systems is a serious health condition, for example kidney failure.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Ocular injury ppt Upendra pal optometrist upums saifai etawah
Urinary system
1. Urinary System
Dr. Mrs. Deepa K. Ingawale (Mandlik)
Department of Pharmacology
Poona College of Pharmacy, Pune
2. Learning Objectives
• To describe the internal structure of kidney.
• To list out different functions of kidneys.
• To study the structure & function of nephron.
• To describe the anatomy & physiology of ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra.
• To describe the physiology of urine formation.
• To describe the various kidney function tests.
• To describe the micturition reflex.
• To describe the water balance & electrolyte balance.
3. Definitions
• Nephrology: It is the branch of science that deals with the
study of structure, function and diseases of kidney.
• Urology: It is branch of science that deals with study of male
& female urinary systems.
4. Parts of Urinary System
• Two Kidneys - produce
urine
• Two Ureters - transport
urine to urinary bladder
• One Urinary bladder -
stores urine
• One Urethra - transports
urine to exterior
5. Functions of urinary system
• Homeostatic regulation of blood plasma
• Regulates blood volume & blood pressure
• Regulates plasma ion concentrations
• Stabilizing blood pH
• Filter many liters of fluid from blood
• Excretion- removal of organic waste products from body
• Urea
• Uric acid
• Creatinine
• Elimination-The discharge of waste products into the
environment
6. Location & External Anatomy of Kidneys
• Paired reddish, bean shaped organs.
• Right kidney is slightly lower than the
left kidney.
• Typical kidney is;
10-12 cm long
5-7 cm wide
3 cm thick
• Weight is 135-150 gm
8. Internal Anatomy of Kidney
• Renal hilus: At the concave border of kidney there is a deep fissure called
as renal hilus.
• Through the hilus the ureters emerge along with blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerves.
• Kidney is divided into 2 sections,
• Renal cortex: Superficial area of kidney
• Renal medulla: Inner area of kidney
• Renal medulla consists of 8 to 18 cone shaped structure called as renal
pyramids.
• The base (wider end) of each pyramid faces the renal cortex and apex
(narrower end) called as renal papilla points towards the renal hilus.
• Renal columns: The portions of renal cortex that extend between renal
pyramids called as renal columns.
• A renal lobe consists of a renal pyramid, its overlying area of renal cortex
and half of each adjacent renal column.
9. Internal Anatomy of Kidneys
• Together, the renal cortex and renal pyramids of renal medulla constitute the
parenchyma of kidney.
• The parenchyma contains the functional units of kidney called as nephrons.
• Urine formed by the nephrons drains into collecting duct, from collecting duct
it enters into large papillary ducts of the pyramids.
• The papillary ducts drains the urine into cuplike structure called minor and
major calyces.
• Each kidney has 8 to 18 minor calyces and 2 to 3 major calyces.
• A minor calyx receives urine from the papillary ducts & delivers to a major
calyx.
• From the major calyx, urine drains into a single large cavity called as renal
pelvis and then with the help of ureter it enters into the urinary bladder.
• The hilus expands into a cavity within the kidney called as renal sinus.
10. Two types of nephron
• Cortical nephrons
• ~85% of all nephrons
• Located in the cortex
• Juxtamedullary nephrons
• ~15% of all nephrons
• Located in the medulla
11. Nephron
• It is the functional unit of kidneys.
• Each nephron consists of 2 parts.
• Renal corpuscle: Where the blood plasma get filtered
• Renal tubule: Into the filtered fluid passes
• Two components of renal corpuscle are the;
• Glomerulus (Capillary network)
• Bowman’s capsule: A double walled epithelial cup that surrounds the
capillary network.
• The renal tubule consists of three parts,
• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
• Loop of Henle (Nephron Loop)
• Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
13. Renal Corpuscle
• It consists two components:
• Glomerulus: A tuft of capillary loops
• Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule: It is surrounded by a double
walled cup called as glomerular capsule.
• The blood enters a glomerulus through afferent arteriole and exits
through an efferent arteriole.
• The outer layer of glomerular capsule is called as parietal layer and
inner layer is called as visceral layer. And the space between them is
called as capsular space.
• As blood flows through the glomerular capillaries, water & other
solutes filter into the capsular space.
• Large plasma proteins & formed elements in blood do not normally
passes through it.
• From the capsular space the filtered fluid passes into the renal tubule.
14. Renal tubule
• Proximal convoluted tubule
(PCT)-
• Actively reabsorbs water,
nutrients, plasma proteins & ions
from filtrate
• Released into peritubular fluid
• Loop of Henle-
• Descending limb
• Ascending limb
• Each limb has a thick and thin
section
• Distal convoluted tubule
(DCT)-
• Actively secretes ions, toxins,
and drugs into filtrate
• Reabsorbs sodium ions from
tubular fluid Collecting tubules- Receive urine
from DCT
16. Mechanisms of Urine Formation
• Glomerular filtration -
Filtration of blood takes place
in glomerulus
• Selective Reabsorption-
Nutrients, water, & essential
ions are reabsorbed
• Tubular Secretion –
• Actively secretes ions, toxins,
and drugs into filtrate
• Active process of removing
toxic molecules
17. Physiology of Urine Formation
• 3 main processes are involved in formation of urine.
18. Glomerular filtration
• The first step in production of urine
• It occurs in the renal corpuscle across the endothelial-
capsular membrane.
• Blood pressure forces water and dissolved blood components
through the endothelial-capsular membrane.
• The resulting fluid is called as filtrate.
• The filtrate contains all the materials present in the blood
except the formed elements and large plasma proteins.
19. Tubular Reabsorption
• As the fluid passes through the renal tubules about 99% of it
is reabsorbed means returned to the blood.
• Thus, only 1% of the filtrate leaves the body as urine (about
1.5 liters/day).
• The movement of water and solutes back into the blood of
a peritubular capillary called as tubular reabsorption.
• The solutes are reabsorbed both by active and passive
processes.
• Solutes that are reabsorbed includes glucose, amino acids,
urea and ions such as Na+
, K+
, Ca+2
, Cl-
, HCO3
_
and HPO4
_
20. Tubular Reabsorption
• Reabsorption is regulated by various hormones.
• Parathyroid hormone: It is secreted by parathyroid gland
and calcitonin from thyroid gland together regulates
reabsorption of calcium and phosphate.
• Antidiuretic hormone: It is secreted by posterior lobe of
pituitary gland increases water reabsorption.
• Aldosterone: It is secreted by adrenal cortex increases
reabsorption of Na+
and excretion of K+
.
• Atrial natriuretic hormone (ANP): It is secreted by the
atria of heart decreases reabsorption of sodium and water in
PCT and collecting ducts.
21. Tubular Secretion
• The third process involved in urine formation process is
tubular secretion.
• Tubular secretion removes materials from the blood and adds
them to the filtrate.
• These secreted substances are K+
, H+
, ammonium ions,
creatinine & drugs like penicillin and para-aminohippuric
acid.
• Tubular secretions of hydrogen ions are important in blood pH
maintainace.
• This process helps in removal of toxic substances from body
in the form of urine.
22. Composition of urine
• Colour: Yellow/amber coloured
• Specific gravity: 1.003 to 1.030
• pH: 6
• Volume: 1 to 2 liters/day
• Odour: Aromatic and become ammonia like on standing.
• Composition: Water (96 %), urea (2 %), uric acid, creatinine,
ammonia, sodium, potassium, chlorides, phosphates,
sulphates and oxalates (2 %).
• Urine production is decreased during sleep and exercise.
24. Ureters
• There are two ureters one for each kidney.
• These are the tubes that convey urine from the kidneys to
urinary bladder.
• They are 25 to 30 cm long and 3 mm thick.
• It continuous with the funnel shaped renal pelvis.
• Histology:
• Ureters consist of 3 coats of tissue.
• Inner layer (Mucosa): Transitional epithelium tissue
• Middle layer (Muscular layer): Smooth muscles
• Outer layer (Fibrous tissue): Fibrous connective tissue
• Physiology: Transportation of urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
25. Urinary Bladder
• It is pear-shaped organ, but becomes oval as it fills with
urine.
• It is act as a reservoir for urine.
• It lies in the pelvic cavity and its size & position vary
depending on the amount of urine it contains.
• When distended, the bladder rises into the abdominal
cavity.
• The bladder capacity is smaller in female because the
uterus occupies space just above the bladder.
• It is divided into two parts.
• Body
• Neck
26. Urinary Bladder
• Neck is the funnel shaped extension of body.
• It connects with the urethra & 2-3 cm long.
• The three orifices in the bladder wall form a trigone.
• The upper two orifices of ureter & lower orifice of urethra forms
trigone.
• The internal urethral sphincters in urethra, controls the outflow
of urine from the bladder.
27. Urinary Bladder
• Histology: It is made up of 3 coats
• Inner layer (Mucosa): Transition epithelium tissue
• Middle layer (Muscular layer): Smooth muscles tissue
• Outer layer (Fibrous tissue): Fibrous connective tissue
28. Urethra
• It is a small tube attached to the urinary bladder which carry
urine to the exterior of body.
• It is longer in males than in females
• Male: It is 20 cm long
• Female: It is 4 cm long
• The wall of female urethra consists of 3 coats.
• Inner layer (Mucosa): Transitional epithelium tissue
• Middle layer (Submucosa): Spongy tissue
• Outer layer (Muscular layer): Stratified squamous tissue
30. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
• Stimuli that initiate the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone
pathway include dehydration, Na+
deficiency or hemorrhage.
• These conditions cause a decrease in blood volume.
• Decreased blood volume leads to decreased blood pressure.
• Lowered blood pressure stimulates juxtaglomerular cells of
kidney, to secrete the enzyme renin.
• The level of renin in the blood increases.
• Renin converts angiotensinogen, a plasma protein produced
by the liver, into angiotensin I.
• Blood containing increased levels of angiotensin I circulate in
the body.
31. Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
• Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) in the lungs converts
angiotensin I into angiotensin II hormone.
• Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
aldosterone.
• In the kidneys, aldosterone increases reabsorption of Na+
and
water and increase secretion of K+
and H+
into the urine.
• With increased water reabsorption by the kidneys, blood
volume increases.
• As blood volume increases, blood pressure increases to
normal.
• Angiotensin II also stimulates contraction of smooth muscle
in the walls of arterioles. The resulting vasoconstriction of the
arterioles increases blood pressure.
32. Acid-Base Balance
• In order to maintain the normal pH of blood, the cells of PCT
secrete hydrogen ions.
• In the filtrate they combine with buffers:
• Hydrogen ions + Bicarbonate = Carbonic acid
• (H+
+ HCO3
-
--» H2C03)
• Hydrogen ions + Ammonia = Ammonium ions
• (H+
+ NH3 --» NH+
4)
• Hydrogen ions + Hydrogen phosphate = Dihydrogen
phosphate
• (H+
+ HPO2
3
-
--» H2PO3
-
)
33. Acid-Base Balance
• Carbonic acid is converted to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
(H2O), and the CO2 is reabsorbed maintaining the buffering
capacity of the blood.
• Hydrogen ions are excreted in the urine as ammonium salts
& hydrogen phosphate.
• The normal pH of urine varies from 4.5 to 8 depending on
diet, time & variety of other factors.
34. Electrolyte balance
• The changes in electrolytes concentration may occurs due to changes
in:
• Body water content or
• Electrolyte levels
• Sodium and potassium concentration:
• Sodium is the positively charged cation in ECF and potassium is
negatively charged found most commonly in ICF.
• Sodium is a constituent of almost all foods and it is added to food
during cooking.
• It is excreted mainly in urine & sweat.
• Sodium is the normal constituent of urine and amount excreted is
regulated by aldosterone hormone, secreted by the adrenal cortex.
35. Electrolyte balance
• The cells of kidney are stimulated to produce renin enzyme by
sympathetic stimulation, low blood volume or low blood
pressure.
• Renin converts the plasma angiotensinogen (liver) to
angiotensin-I.
• Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), formed in the lungs
converts angiotensin-I into angiotensin-II which is a potent
vasoconstrictor and increases the blood pressure.
• Water is reabsorbed with sodium and together they increase the
blood volume and blood pressure.
36. Electrolyte balance
• When sodium reabsorption is increased, potassium excretion is
increased, indirectly reducing intracellular potassium.
• Normally the renal mechanism maintains the concentration of
sodium and potassium within the physiological limits.
• Sodium and potassium occur in high concentrations in
digestive juices - sodium in gastric juice and potassium in
pancreatic & intestinal juice.
• Normally these ions are reabsorbed by the colon but following
acute & prolonged diarrhoea they may be excreted in large
quantities with results in electrolyte imbalance.
37. Water balance
• The source of body water is dietary food and fluid and small
amount is formed by metabolic processes.
• Excretion of water take place in the form of faeces, sweat and
as the main constituent of urine.
• The balance between fluid intake and output is controlled
by the kidneys.
• The minimum urinary output is about 500 ml per day.
• The excess amount produced is controlled by antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) released into the blood by posterior lobe of
pituitary gland.
38. Water balance
Blood osmotic pressure raised
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus
Stimulateposteriorpituitarygland
IncreasedreabsorptionofwaterbyKidneys
Blood osmotic pressure lowered
Increased secretion of ADH
39. Water balance
• Sensory nerve cells in the hypothalamus (osmoreceptors)
detect changes in the osmotic pressure of the blood.
• Nerve impulses from the osmoreceptors stimulate the posterior
lobe of the pituitary gland to release ADH.
• When the osmotic pressure is raised, ADH output is increased
and as a result, water reabsorption by the cells in distal
convoluted tubules and collecting ducts is increased, reducing
the blood osmotic pressure and ADH output.
• When blood volume is increased, stretch receptors in the atria
of the heart release atrial natriuretic hormone (ANP).
• This reduces reabsorption of sodium and water by PCT and
collecting ducts, meaning that are more sodium and water are
excreted.
• In turn this reduces blood volume.
40. Water balance
Blood volume raised
Stretch receptors in atria
Release of
ANP
Decreased reabsorption of sodium & water by Kidneys
Blood volume lowered
41. Renal clearance test
• Assessment of kidney function involves evaluation of both the
quantity and quality of urine and amount of wastes
substances in the blood.
• The various test includes are;
• Urinalysis
• Blood tests
• Renal plasma clearance
• Urinalysis:
• The examination of volume, physical, chemical &
microscopic properties of urine called as urinalysis.
42. Characteristic of normal urine
• Volume: One to two liters per day.
• Color: Yellow or amber. Color is due to urochrome (pigment
produced from breakdown of bile) and urobilin (from breakdown of
hemoglobin).
• Turbidity: Transparent when freshly voided but becomes turbid on
standing.
• Odour: Mildly aromatic but becomes ammonia-like on standing.
• pH
: Ranges between 4.6 and 7.0. High-protein diets increase acidity;
vegetarian diets increase alkalinity.
• Specific gravity: Ranges from 1.001 to 1.035.
• Albumin: The presence of excessive albumin in the urine is called
as albuminuria.
43. Characteristic of normal urine
• Glucose: The presence of glucose in the urine is called glucosuria.
• Red blood cells: The presence of red blood cells in the urine is
called hematuria.
• Ketone bodies: High levels of ketone bodies in the urine, called
ketonuria.
• Bilirubin: The presence of excessive bilirubin in urine is called
bilirubinuria.
• Urobilinogen: The presence of urobilinogen (breakdown product
of hemoglobin) in urine is called urobilinogenuria.
• Microbes: The number & type of bacteria vary with infections in
the urinary tract. One of the most common is E. coli. The most
common fungus is Candida albicans and protozoan seen is
Trichomonas vaginalis.
44. Blood tests
• Two blood-screening tests can provide information about kidney
function.
• Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) test
• Plasma Creatinine test
• Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) test: It measures the amount of blood
nitrogen that is obtained from conversion of urea into amino acids.
• When glomerular filtration rate decreases, BUN rises steeply.
• A blood urea nitrogen normal range is 5 to 20 mg/dl.
• Plasma creatinine test: It measures the amount of plasma creatinine,
that results from catabolism of creatinine phosphate in skeletal
muscle.
• A creatinine level above 1.5 mg/dl usually is an indication of poor
renal function.
45. Renal Plasma Clearance
• It is an evaluation of how effectively kidneys are removing a
given substances from the blood plasma.
• It is the volume of blood that is cleared of a substance per unit of
time.
• It is usually expressed in ml/minute.
• High renal plasma clearance indicates efficient excretion of a
substance in the urine; low clearance indicates inefficient excretion.
• Renal plasma clearance of substance (S) = U X V/P
• Where;
• U: Concentrations of the substance in urine
• P: Concentrations of the substance in plasma
• V: Urine flow rate in ml/min.
47. Micturition
• The urinary bladder is acts as a reservoir of urine.
• When 300 to 400 ml of urine has accumulated in the urinary
bladder, the afferent autonomic nerve fibres in the bladder
wall get stimulated.
• Micturition occurs when autonomic efferent fibres convey
impulses to the bladder causing contraction of urinary bladder.
• When the nervous system is fully developed the micturition
reflex is stimulated but sensory impulses pass upwards to the
brain and there is an awareness of the desire to pass urine.
48. Disorders of urinary system
• Renal calculi:
• The crystals of salts present in urine occasionally precipitate and
solidify into insoluble stones called as renal calculi or renal stones.
• Commonly it contains crystals of calcium oxalates, uric acid or calcium
phosphate.
• Urinary tract infection (UTI):
• It is an infection of a part of urinary system or the presence of large
number of microbes in urine.
• UTI is more common in females because of short length of the urethra.
• The symptom includes painful or burning urination, urgent and
frequent urination, low back pain and bed-wetting.
• UTI includes;
• Urethritis: Inflammation urethra
• Cystitis: Inflammation of urinary bladder
• Pyelonephritis: Inflammation of kidney
49. Disorders of urinary system
• Glomerulonephritis:
• It is an inflammation of the kidney that involves the glomeruli.
• The glomeruli become inflamed, swollen and enlarged with blood
that the filtration membrane allows blood cells and plasma proteins to
enter the filtrate.
• As a result the urine contains many RBCs and lots of protein.
• Nephrotic syndrome:
• It is a condition characterized by protein in the urine and
hyperlipidaemia (high blood levels of cholesterol, phospholipids and
triglycerides).
50. Disorders of urinary system
• Renal failure:
• It is a decreased glomerular filtration rate.
• There are two types of renal failure;
• Acute renal failure (ARF)
• Chronic renal failure (CRF)
• Acute renal failure (ARF):
• The kidneys abruptly stop working.
• The main feature of ARF is the suppression of urine flow, usually
characterized either by oliguria (daily urine output between 50-250
ml) or by anuria (daily urine output less than 50 ml)
• Chronic renal failure (CRF):
• It refers to a progressive and usually irreversible decline in
glomerular filtration rate.
• It may result from chronic glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis,
polycystic kidney disease or traumatic loss of kidney tissue.
51. Disorders of urinary system
• Polycystic kidney disease (PKD):
• It is most common inherited disorders.
• In PKD, the kidney tubules become riddled with hundreds or
thousands of cysts (fluid-filled cavities).
• Urinary bladder cancer:
• It is cancer of urinary bladder.