Cell & Tissues document provides an overview of cell structure and function including: 1. It defines cells and their basic parts like the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and various organelles. The plasma membrane regulates passage of substances into and out of the cell via proteins and lipids. 2. Protein synthesis is summarized as transcription of DNA to mRNA in the nucleus, followed by translation of mRNA to proteins by ribosomes. 3. Cell division and the stages of cell cycle are also briefly discussed. The document aims to describe cellular structures, functions, transport mechanisms, and protein synthesis at the basic level.

1. Cell & Tissues
Dr. Mrs. Deepa K. Ingawale (Mandlik)
Department of Pharmacology
Poona College of Pharmacy, Pune

2. Content in detail
• Definition of cell & cytology
• Different parts of cells & their functions
• Structure of plasma membrane
• Different cell organelles (Nucleus, Ribosomes, Endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi complex, Mitochondria, Lysosomes &
Peroxisomes)
• Protein synthesis (Transcription & Translation)
• Cell division
• Movement of material across the plasma membrane

3. Learning Objectives
• To describe the structure & function of different parts of cells
• To describe the structure & functions of plasma membrane.
• To study different processes of drug transport across the
plasma membrane.
• To describe the process of protein synthesis.
• To discuss the stages of cell division.

4. Definitions
• Cell: It is basic living, structural, & functional unit of
the body.
• Cytology: It is the branch of science concerned with
the study of cells.

5. Parts of Cell
• Two major parts:
• Plasma membrane
• Cell organelles
• Different parts :
• Plasma membrane (Cell Membrane)
• Cytoplasm
• Nucleus
• Nucleolus
• Mitochondria
• Golgi complex
• Endoplasmic reticulum

6. Diagram of Cell

7. Plasma membrane (Cell membrane)
The thin barrier that separates the internal components of
the cell from the external environment.
It is the gate keeper that regulates the passage of substances
into & out of the cell.

8. Composition of membrane
• It is made up of lipids & proteins.
• The main lipids are:
• Phospholipids
• Cholesterol
• Glycolipids
• Some carbohydrates are also involved in the
membrane.

9. Membrane Lipids
• Phospholipids:
• These are the lipids that contain phosphorus (75 %).
• These are arranged in lipid bilayer.
• These are amphipathic in nature, divided into two parts;
 Polar head (Hydrophilic)
 Hydrocarbon tails (Hydrophobic)

10. Membrane Lipids
• Glycolipids:
• These are the lipids with one or more sugar groups attached
to it (5%) .
• These are amphipathic in nature.
• These are present only at one side of the membrane.
• Cholesterol:
• These are present in 20%.
• It is present in phospholipids in both sides of the membrane.
• The steroid ring of the cholesterol strengthens the membrane
but decreases its flexibility.

11. Membrane proteins
• These proteins are embedded in a lipid bilayer.
• Two types of membrane proteins:
 Integral proteins
 Peripheral proteins
• Integral protein:
• The integral proteins are completely embedded in the lipid
bilayer.
• These are also called as trans-membrane proteins.

12. Membrane proteins
• Integral proteins are divided into;
• Channel proteins: Responsible for transfer for small water-soluble
molecules across the membrane.
• Carrier proteins: Responsible for transfer of material across the
bilayer through active transport.
• Receptor proteins: Bind with different neurotransmitters and
produces different reactions.
• Pumps: Responsible for transfer of ions across the bilayer, against
concentration gradient (Lower to higher concentration).

13. Membrane proteins
• Peripheral proteins:
• These are also called as extrinsic proteins.
• They are attached to the periphery of membrane.

14. Cell Organelles
Cytoplasm
• It present inside the plasma membrane & external to the
nucleus.
• The semifluid portion of cytoplasm in which cell organelles
are suspended is called as cytosol.
• Cytosol is transparent, viscous gel like fluid containing 75 to
90% of water, suspended & dissolved components such as
proteins, lipids & carbohydrate, different inorganic substances
& salts.
• The cell organelles are bathed in the cytosol.

15. Nucleus
It is spherical or oval in shape & largest structure in the cell.
A double membrane which separates the nucleus from the
cytoplasm is called as nuclear membrane.

16. Nucleus
• Both the inner & outer membrane is phospholipids bilayer.
• It externally continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
• It contains nuclear pores.
• Theses pores act as channel for transfer of ions & water
soluble molecules between the nucleus & cytoplasm.
• Nucleus contains nucleolus a spherical structure.
• These are aggregations of protein, DNA & RNA.

17. Ribosomes
• These are tiny spheres that contain ribosomal RNA &
proteins.
• Ribosomes are site for protein synthesis.
• These are made of two subunits;
 Smaller one: RNA of smaller size
 Larger one: RNA of larger size
• These are of two types:
 Those attached to endoplasmic reticulum called as rough ribosomes.
 Those are free in cytosol called as free ribosomes

18. Endoplasmic reticulum
• These are membrane enclosed channels called as cisterns.
• It is an interconnected network of internal membrane.
• Based on the presence of ribosomes it is divided into 2 types.
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER

19. Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough ER:
• The ribosomes are attached on the surface.
• It is granular in appearance & rough.
• It is responsible for synthesis of certain proteins.
• Smooth ER:
• The ribosomes are not attached to the surface.
• It is smooth in nature.
• It is the site of fatty acid, phospholipids & steroid synthesis.

20. Golgi complex
• It is preset near the nucleus.
• It consists of four to six
flattened sacs called as
cisterns, staked upon each
other like a pile of plates with
expanded bulges at their ends.
• The stack of Golgi sacs has two
regions-Cis & Trans.
• Golgi apparatus stores proteins
& is also responsible for
modifying them.

21. Mitochondria

22. Mitochondria
• It is called as powerhouse of cells because it generate ATP.
• It consist of two lipoprotein membranes.
• Outer mitochondrial membrane: It covers the whole
structure.
• Inner mitochondrial membrane: It contains a series of folds
called as cristae.
• The large central fluid-filled cavity is present called as matrix.
• Many oxidative enzymes causes oxidation of nutrients, carbon
dioxide & water, releases energy that is utilized in formation
of ATP.

23. Lysosomes
• These are small
secretory vesicles
formed from the Golgi
complex.
• It contains 60 types of
digestive & hydrolytic
enzymes that can break
variety of molecule.
• Lysosomal enzymes work
at acidic pH=5 &
inactivated at neutral
pH.
Peroxisomes
• Another small group of
organelles called as
peroxisome.
• They contains several
oxidases enzyme for
oxidation of Amino acid &
fatty acid.

24. Movementof material across CM
• It is divided into two sub-headings:
• Movement of small molecules across the CM:
• Simple diffusion or Passive transport
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
• Active transport
• Movement of large molecules across the CM :
• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis

25. Passive Diffusion• Also known as non-ionic
diffusion.
• It is defined as the difference in
the drug concentration on either
side of the membrane.
• Drug movement is a result of the
kinetic energy of molecules.
• No external energy source is
required.
• Major process for absorption of
90% of drugs.
• The driving force is concentration
or electrochemical gradient.
25
The drugs having molecular wt. 100 to 400 D can be
absorbed by passive diffusion

26. Facilitated diffusion
• The driving force for this mechanism is
concentration gradient
• Occurs at much faster rate than passive
diffusion
• No expenditure of energy (Down-hill
transport)
• Less importance in the absorption of
drugs.
• E.g. Entry of glucose into RBCs &
intestinal absorption of vitamins B1 &
B2, gastro-intestinal absorption of
vitamin B12.
• Many lipid insoluble substances like
certain vitamins, glucose, urea crosses
the membrane by this process.

27. Osmosis
• Movement of water
molecules across a
selectively permeable
membrane from an area of
higher water concentration
to an area of lower water
concentration.

28. Active transport
When the drug is
transported against the
concentration gradient i.e.
from lower concentration to
higher concentration with
utilization of energy called
as active transport.

29. Endocytosis
• It involves engulfment of
extracellular materials within a
segment of the cell membrane to
form a saccule or a vesicle.
• Also called as corpuscular or
vesicular transport which is then
removed outside.
29
 Three types:
A) Phagocytosis
B) Pinocytosis
C) Transcytosis

30. A) Phagocytosis:
Cell eating (Uptake of solid particles)
30

31. B) Pinocytosis
Cell drinking (Uptake of fluid solute)
• Small fluid molecules are engulfed
by cell membrane & digested with
the help of lysosome.
• This process requires energy in the
form of (ATP).
• It is important in the absorption of
oil soluble vitamins & uptake of
nutrients.
• Polio vaccine & protein molecules
are absorbed by pinocytosis
31

32. C) Transcytosis
• It is the process in which endocytic vesicle is transferred
from one extracellular compartment to another
compartment.
32

33. Protein synthesis

34. Protein synthesis
• The proteins are responsible for determination of physical &
chemical characteristics of cells.
• Some proteins helps in assembling cellular structures such as
the plasma membrane, cytoskeleton, & other organelles.
• Others proteins serve as hormones, antibodies & enzymes
regulating the rates of chemical reactions.
• Genome: All the genes in an organism
• Proteome: All the proteins in an organism.

35. Protein Synthesis
• The DNA is used as a template for synthesis of a specific
protein.
• The protein synthesis occurs by 2 steps:
• Transcription: The information encoded in DNA is transcribed
(copied) to produce mRNA (ribonucleic acid).
• Translation: The mRNA attaches to a ribosome leads to
formation of new protein molecule.

36. Transcription
• It is the first stage of genes expression.
• The process occurs in the nucleus.
• In this process the genetic information encoded in DNA is
transcribed to RNA.
• 3 types of RNA are made from the DNA :
• Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Transfer RNA (tRNA)

37. Translation
It is the process in which ribosomes makes proteins from
mRNA.
It process occurs in the cytoplasm.

38. Summary of protein synthesis

39. Cell Division
• The eukaryotic cells divide approximately every 24 hours.
• The duration of cell cycle vary from organism to organism &
also from cell type to cell type.
• The two types of cell division:
 Somatic cell division
 Reproductive cell division

40. Cell Division
• Somatic cell division: A cell undergoes a nuclear division
called mitosis & cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis to
produce two identical cells having same number of
chromosomes as the original cell.
• Reproductive cell division: A cell undergoes a reductive cell
division called as meiosis, in which the number of
chromosomes in the nucleus is reduced to half.

41. Somatic Cell Division

42. Cell cycle
• It is an orderly sequence of events by which a somatic cell
duplicates its contents & divides in to two.
• Human cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of
46.
• Somatic cells contain two sets of chromosomes (diploid cells)
denoted as 2n.
• It is divided into 2 phases:
• Interphase: when a cell is not dividing
• Mitotic phase: when a cell is dividing

43. Interphase
• During Interphase replication of DNA takes place & produces
additional organelles & cytosolic components.
• It consists of 3 phases: G1, S, & G2.
• G1 phase:
• It is the interval between mitotic phase & S phase.
• During G1 phase replication of most of organelles & cytosolic
components takesplace but not DNA.
• It lasts for 8 to 10 hours.

44. Interphase
• S phase:
• It is the interval between G1 & G2 phase & lasts for 8 hours.
• During the S phase, DNA replication occurs.
• As a result, two identical cells are formed during cell division
having same genetic material.
• G2 phase:
• It is the interval between S phase & mitotic phase.
• It lasts 4 to 6 hours.
• During G2, cell growth continues, enzymes & proteins are
synthesized for cell division.
• Once a cell completes its activities during the G1, S, & G2
phases, the mitotic phase begins.

45. Mitotic (M) Phase
• It is also called as equatorial division becoz contains same
number of chromosomes as parent cells.
• It consists of a nuclear division (mitosis) & a cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis) to form two identical cells.
• The process results in the exact partitioning of genetic
material.
• Divided into 4 stages:
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

46. Mitotic (M) Phase
• Prophase:
• In early prophase, the chromatin fibers shorten into
chromosomes.
• Each chromosome consists of a pair of identical strands called
chromatids.
• A constricted region called a centromere holds the chromatid
pair together.
• In Late prophase, the nucleolus disappears & nuclear
envelope breaks down.

47. Mitotic (M) Phase
• Metaphase:
• During metaphase, the microtubules of the mitotic spindle
align the centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the exact
center of the mitotic spindle called as metaphase plate.
• Anaphase:
• During anaphase, the centromeres split separating the two
members of each chromatid pair, which move toward
opposite poles of the cell. Once separated, the chromatids are
termed chromosomes. As the chromosomes are pulled by the
microtubules of the mitotic spindle during anaphase appears
V-shaped.

48. Mitotic (M) Phase
• Telophase:
• Telophase begins after chromosomal movement stops. The
identical sets of chromosomes, now at opposite poles of the
cell, uncoil and forms threadlike chromatin form. A nuclear
envelope forms around each chromatin mass, nucleoli
reappear and the mitotic spindle breaks up.

49. Cytokinesis

50. Questions
• LAQ:
• What is cell and explain it with neat labelled diagram. (10 M)
• Explain the events of cell division. (7 M)
• SAQ:
• Define and enlist different parts of cell. (3 M)
• Enlist the process for transfer of material across the cell
membrane.(3 M)
• Note on transport of materials across plasma membrane (3 M,
May 2010)
• Note on cell membrane (3 M, October 2010)
• Draw a neat labelled diagram of cell. (3 M, October 2011)

51. Questions
• Explain internal structure of human cell. (3 M, May 2012)
• Write a note on (5 M)
• Passive transport
• Facilitated diffusion
• Active transport
• Osmosis
• Endocytosis
• Draw a neat labelled diagram of Cell and explain Transport
Mechanisms across Plasma Membrane. (5 M, October 2009)
• Explain in detail structure of cell membrane. (5 M, May 2009)

52. Questions
• Explain structure and function of plasma membrane. (5 M,
May 2010)
• Draw a neat labelled diagram of cell and explain movement of
materials across plasma membrane. (5 M, May 2011)
• Explain the transport of material across plasma membrane. (5
M, May 2012)
• Write a note on translation and transcription. (5 M)

53. Tissues
• Content in detail:
• Definition of tissue & histology
• Structure & function of Epithelial tissue
• Structure & function of Connective tissue
• Structure & function of Muscle tissue
• Structure & function of Nervous tissue

54. Tissues
• Learning Objectives:
• To understand 4 basic types of tissues.
• To describe the location, structure, & function of Epithelium
tissue.
• To describe the location, structure, & function of Connective
tissue.
• To describe the location, structure, & function of Muscle
tissue.
• To describe the location, structure, & function of Nervous
tissue.

55. Definitions
• Tissue: A group of cells, similar in origin & function
unites together to form tissues.
• Histology: It is the science that deals with the study
of tissues.

56. Types of body tissues
• There are 4 types of tissues:
• Epithelial tissue: It covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs,
body cavities & ducts.
• Connective tissue: It protects, supports the body & its organs.
It acts as energy store (reserves fat) & provides immunity.
• Muscle tissue: It generates physical force needed to generate
body heat.
• Nervous tissue: It generates nerve impulses responsible for
muscular contractions & glandular secretions.
•

57. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Simple Stratified Pseudo- stratified
columnar epithelium
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Ciliated
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional

58. Epithelial Tissue
• The cells are arranged in continuous sheets, in either single or
multiple layers.
• It covers body surfaces & lines hollow organs, body cavities
and ducts.
• It protects the underlying tissues from injury.
• It secrets certain chemical substances that are utilized by the
body or removed outside.

59. Basement membrane & surfaces of epithelial cells

60. Simple epithelium
• It is made up of single layer of cells & divided into 4 types.
• Simple squamous epithelium
• Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Simple columnar epithelium
• Simple ciliated epithelium

61. Simple squamous epithelium
• Description: It is made up of
single layer of flat cells having
centrally located nucleus.
• Location: Lines heart, blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, lungs,
glomerular capsule of kidneys.
• Functions: Filtration, Diffusion,
Osmosis

62. Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Description: It is made up of
single layer of cube shaped cells
having centrally located nucleus.
• Location: It lines the kidney
tubules, ovary and pancrea
• Functions: Secretion & absorption

63. Simple columnar epithelium
• Description: It is made up of
single layer of rectangular cells
with nuclei at the base.
• Mucus secreting glands are
present called as goblet cells.
• Location: It lines the GIT from
stomach to anus, ducts of many
glands & gall bladder.
• Functions: Secretion & absorption

64. Simple ciliated epithelium
• Description: It is made up of
ciliated (hair like structure)
rectangular cells with nuclei near
base. It contains mucus secreting
goblet cells.
• Location: It lines upper respiratory
tracts, uterine (fallopian) tubes,
uterus & spinal cord.
• Functions: Moves mucus & other
substances by cliliary action.
• In alimentary tract propels the
digestive contents forward.

65. Stratified epithelium
• It is made up of multiple layers of cells.
• It is divided into 4 types.
• Stratified squamous epithelium
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Stratified columnar epithelium
• Transitional epithelium

66. Stratified squamous epithelium
• Description: It is composed of many
layers of different shaped cells.
• In the deepest layer, the cells are
columnar shaped, as they grow
towards the surface, they become
flattened.
• Location: Keratinized cells forms the
superficial layer of skin, Non-
keratinized cells lines the wet
surfaces such as lining of mouth,
esophagus, epiglottis, vagina &
tongue.
Functions: Protection

67. Stratified cuboidal epithelium
• Description: It is made up of two
or more layers of cells. In the
apical layer cube shaped cells are
present.
• Location: Ducts of sweat,
oesophageal glands and part of
male urethra.
• Functions: Protection, limited
secretion and absorption

68. Stratified columnar epithelium
• Description: It is made up of
several layers of irregularly shaped
cells. In the apical layer columnar
cells are present.
• Location: Lines part of urethra,
large excretory ducts of glands and
conjunctiva of eye.
• Functions: Protection and
secretion

69. Transitional epithelium
• Description: It is made up of many
layers of pear shaped cells. It is
variable in appearance. In relaxed
state it looks like stratified cuboidal
epithelium and when starched the
cells become squamous shaped.
• Location: It is found in the lining of
uterus and urinary bladder.
• Functions: Protects underlying
structure and permits distension of
organs.

70. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• Description: Not a true stratified
tissue; nuclei of cells are at different
levels; all cells are attached to
basement membrane, but not all
reach the apical surface.
• Location: Pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium lines the
airways; pseudostratified non-ciliated
columnar epithelium lines ducts of
many glands, epididymis & part of
male urethra.
Function: Secretion & movement of mucus by ciliary action

71. Connective tissue
• It supports, connects or separates different tissues & organs
of the body.
• It is made up of fibers, cells & ground substances.
• Fibers: 3 types of fibers are embedded in the ECM which
strengthen & supports the CT.
• Collagen fibers: Very strong fibers allows tissue flexibility. Made up
of protein collagen. Found in bone, cartilage, tendons & ligaments.
• Elastic fibers: Smaller in diameter. Made up of protein elastin that
gives strength & stability to tissue.
• Reticular fibers: Much thinner in diameter. It consists of collagen
protein that gives support & strength.

72. Connective tissue
• Ground substance:
• It is gel-like substance present surrounding the cells.
• In the ground substance cells & fibers are suspended.
• It supports cells, binds them together and stores water.
• It is made of water, glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronan),
proteoglycans, glycoproteins, hyaluronic acid, chondroitin
sulfate & dermatan sulfate.
• Cells: It consists of fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma cells,
mast cells, adipocytes & WBCs.

73. Connective tissue

74. Functions
• Storage of energy
• Protection of organs
• Provides structural framework to the body
• Connection of body tissues

75. Types of connective tissue
• Loose connective tissue:
• Areolar CT
• Adipose CT
• Reticular CT
• Dense connective tissue:
• Dense regular CT
• Dense irregular CT
• Elastic CT
• Cartilage:
• Hyaline cartilage
• Fibro cartilage
• Elastic cartilage
• Bone tissue:
• Liquid connective tissue:
• Blood
• Lymph

76. Loose connective tissue
• These fibres are loosely woven.
• The fibres content is lower & cell content is higher.

77. Areolar Connective Tissue
• Description: It consists of collagen,
elastic, reticular fibers & cells
(fibroblasts, macrophages, plasma
cells, adipocytes & mast cells
embedded in ground substances).
• Location: Present below the skin,
supporting blood vessels, nerves, in
the alimentary canal.
• Functions: Strength, elasticity &
support

78. Adipose Connective Tissue
• Description: It consists of adipocytes
which stores fats as a large centrally
located droplet. It prevents heat loss
from body & acts as a reservoir of
energy.
• Location: Present in SC layer deep to
skin, around heart, kidneys & Yellow
bone marrow
• Functions: Reduces heat loss from
skin, serves as an energy reserve,
gives shape to limbs, body &
protects underlying organ from
injury

79. Reticular connective tissue
• Description: It consists of reticular
fibers & reticular cells.
• Location: Present in supporting
framework of liver, spleen, lymph
nodes, red bone marrow, blood
vessels and muscles.
• Functions: Forms stroma of organs,
filters & removes dead blood cells in
the spleen & microbes in the lymph
node.

80. Dense connective tissue
• In this fibres are densely packed, the fibres content is higher &
cell content is lower as compared to loose connective tissue.

81. Dense regular connective tissue
• Description: It consist of bundles of
collagen fibers arranged parallel
manner that provides strength to
tissue.
• Fibroblast are present in rows
between the fibers.
• It is silvery white in colour & tough
in nature.
• Location: It forms tendons (attaches
muscle to bone) & ligaments
(attaches bone to bone).
• Functions: Provide strong
attachment to structures.

82. Dense irregular connective tissue
• Description: It contains collagen
fibers which are irregularly
arranged & few fibroblasts are
appears in rows between the
fibers.
• Location: It is present beneath the
skin, bone, kidneys, liver, testes,
lymph node, pericardium of heart
& heart valves.
• Functions: Provide strength

83. Elastic connective tissue
• Description: It consists of elastic
fibers.
• Fibroblasts are present between
the fibres.
• Location: Present in lung tissues,
wall of arteries, trachea,
bronchial tubes & vocal cords.
• Functions: It allows stretching of
various organs.

84. Cartilage
• It consists of a network of collagen fibers & elastic fibres
embedded in chondroitin sulfate of ground substance.
• The cells of mature cartilage called as chondrocytes.

85. Hyaline Cartilage
• Description: It is bluish white in
colour consists of collagen fibers &
many chondrocytes.
• Most abundant cartilage in body.
• Location: Present at the ends of long
bones, ribs, nose, part of larynx,
trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes,
embryonic & fetal skeleton.
• Functions: It provides surfaces for
movement at joints, flexibility &
support.

86. Fibro cartilage
• Description: It is strongest form
of cartilage.
• It consist of many chondrocytes
in the bundle of collagen fibers.
• It is tough & slightly flexible.
• Location: Present in inter-
vertebral disc
• Functions: It covers & protects
bony structures of body.

87. Elastic cartilage
• Description: It consist of many
chondrocytes in the threadlike
network of elastic fibers
embedded in the extracellular
matrix.
• Location: Present in pinna of ear
& top of larynx
• Functions: Gives support &
maintains shape.

88. Bone tissue

89. Bone tissue
• Description: It is the hardest connective tissue.
• It is composed of 25% of water, 30% organic material & 45%
inorganic salts.
• It consists of Haversian canal system.
• Haversian canal system consists of,
• Central Haversian Channel: Contains blood vessels & nerves.
• Lamellae: Surrounding the central canal concentric plates of
bone are present
• Lacunae: It contains oestocytes (mature bone cells)
• Canaliculi: It project from the lacunae (processes of
oestocytes)

90. Bone tissue
• Location: It is present in compact & spongy bone tissue
• Functions:
• To forms supporting framework for body.
• To give protection to delicate organs.
• To form joints essential for locomotion of body.
• To form red blood cells in red bone marrow.
• To provide store of calcium salts.
• It gives support & maintains shape.

91. Liquid connective tissue (Blood)

92. Blood
• Description: Blood is a connective tissue with liquid
extracellular matrix called as blood plasma.
• It is composed of 55% plasma and 45% of cells.
• Plasma is composed of, 90-92% of water, plasma proteins,
mineral salts, organic waste products, nutrients material,
hormones, enzymes and gaseous.
• Blood cells are of 3 types;
• Erythrocytes (RBC): Transport oxygen to body cells & remove
carbon dioxide from them.
• Leucocytes (WBC): Involved in phagocytosis, immunity &
allergic reaction.
• Thrombocytes (Platelets): Participate in blood clotting.

93. Blood
• Location: It is present within blood vessels (arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins) and within the
chambers of the heart.
• Functions:
• RBCs transport oxygen to body cells & remove carbon-dioxide
from them.
• WBCs are involved in phagocytosis, immunity & allergic
reaction.
• These participate in blood clotting process.
• These are responsible for maintaining body temperature.

94. Muscular tissue
• It consists of elongated cells called muscle fibres that can use
ATP to generate force.
• Three types of muscular tissues are present.
• Skeletal/striated/voluntary muscle tissue
• Cardiac muscle
• Smooth/non-striated/involuntary muscle tissue.

95. Skeletal muscle tissue
• Description:
• The cells are cylindrical in
shape.
• Fibres are parallel to each
other.
• Length is 30-40 cm.
• It has several nuclei located at
the periphery.

96. Skeletal muscle tissue
• It shows alternate dark and light band i.e. striations and hence
the name is striated muscle.
• The muscles are attached to bones hence called as skeletal
muscles.
• The activity of fibres is within ones control (voluntary muscle).
• Location: It is usually attached to bone by tendons.
• Functions: It gives motion, posture, heat production &
protection.

97. Cardiac muscle tissue

98. Cardiac muscle tissue
• Description:
• It is present in the myocardium of heart wall.
• It is striated but involuntary i.e. the activity of fibres is beyond
ones wish (involuntary muscle tissue).
• Each fibers is parallel to each other, branched &
multinucleated.
• Two cardiac muscle fibres are attached by thickened plasma
membrane called as intercalated disc.
• Location: It is present in the heart wall.
• Functions: It pumps blood to all part of the body.

99. Smooth muscle tissue
• The fibre is very small.
• Thickest in the middle & tapering
at each end.
• It contains single, centrally
located nucleus.
• The cells are spindle shaped.

100. Smooth muscle tissue
• Alternate light or dark bands are absent (smooth/non-
striated).
• Activity of theses fibers is beyond ones wish (involuntary).
• Location: Wall of blood vessels, wall of lymph vessels,
alimentary tract, respiratory tract, urinary bladder & uterus.
• Functions: It gives motion (contraction of blood vessels,
airways, propulsion of food through GIT, contraction of
urinary bladder & gall bladder).

101. Nervous tissue

102. Nervous tissue
• Description:
• It is made up of various parts.
• Neurons:
• It is made up of cell body, axons, dendrites & axon terminals.
• Cell body: It contains nucleus & other organelles.
• Dendrites:
• These are input portions of neuron.
• Usually short & highly branched forms tree like structure.
• Each nerve cell contains many dendrites.

103. Nervous tissue
• Axon: Each nerve cell contains single axon which is thin, long
& cylindrical major output portion of a neuron.
• Location: It is present in the nervous system.
• Function: Converts various types of stimuli into nerve
impulses (action potentials), & conducts nerve impulses to
other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.

104. Questions
• LAQ:
• Define tissue. Enlist different types of tissues. Explain in detail
epithelial tissue and connective tissue. (10 M, October 2009)
• SAQ:
• Define tissue and give its different types. (3 M)
• Note on nervous Tissue (3 M, October 2009)
• Note on Nervous tissue (3 M, May 2010)
• Note on nervous tissue (3 M, May 2011)

105. Questions
• Write a note on epithelial tissue and explain its different
types. (5 M)
• Describe muscular tissue. (5 M)
• Write a note on nervous tissue.(5 M)
• Give types and the common locations of epithelial tissues in
body. Explain Characteristics of epithelial tissues. (5 M,
October 2010)
• Explain in detail structure and functions of epithelial tissue. (5
M, May 2011)
• Explain structure and function of nervous tissue. (5 M,
October 2011)