Process parameters calculation for various production processes-Selection jigs and fixtures election of quality assurance methods - Set of documents for process planning-Economics of process planning.
PPCE unit 2 (ME8793 – PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION )TAMILMECHKIT
UNIT 2 – PROCESS PLANNING ACTIVITIES
Process parameters calculation for various production processes-Selection jigs and fixtures- Selection of quality assurance methods - Set of documents for process planning-Economics of process planning- case studies
PPCE unit 3 (ME8793 – PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION) TAMILMECHKIT
UNIT III - INTRODUCTION TO COST ESTIMATION
Importance of costing and estimation –methods of costing-elements of cost estimation –Types of estimates – Estimating procedure- Estimation labor cost, material cost- allocation of over head charges- Calculation of depreciation cost
PPCE unit 2 (ME8793 – PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION )TAMILMECHKIT
UNIT 2 – PROCESS PLANNING ACTIVITIES
Process parameters calculation for various production processes-Selection jigs and fixtures- Selection of quality assurance methods - Set of documents for process planning-Economics of process planning- case studies
PPCE unit 3 (ME8793 – PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION) TAMILMECHKIT
UNIT III - INTRODUCTION TO COST ESTIMATION
Importance of costing and estimation –methods of costing-elements of cost estimation –Types of estimates – Estimating procedure- Estimation labor cost, material cost- allocation of over head charges- Calculation of depreciation cost
Classification of manufacturing processAkhtar Kamal
Classification of manufacturing process...
Process for changing Physical properties of work piece.
Casting process
Primary metal working processes.
Shearing and Forming processes.
Joining processes.
Machining processes.
Surface finishing processes.
Cnc tooling for cnc machine(130670119596)Kushal Shah
we have seen what the NC machine is and its various
parts, it is easier to understand what the CNC machine is. CNC is
the short form for Computer Numerical control. We have seen that
the NC machine works as per the program of instructions fed into
the controller unit of the machine. The CNC machine comprises of
the mini computer or the microcomputer that acts as the controller
unit of the machine. While in the NC machine the program is fed
into the punch cards, in CNC machines the program of instructions
is fed directly into the computer via a small board similar to the
traditional keyboard.
Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines
2. Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines
3. Line Balancing Algorithms
4. Mixed Model Assembly Lines
5. Workstation Considerations
6. Other Considerations in Assembly Line Design
7. Alternative Assembly Systems
MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE TOOLS
Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe (Chuck,Collet,face Plate,Holding the Work Between Centers)
Work Holding for Drill Presses
Boring Drilling, Reaming, Tapping Milling
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
Shaper and Planer
Broaching
Optimizing Material removal rate and surface roughness using Taguchi techniqueroymeister007
The objective of this advanced design project is to obtain an optimal setting of turning parameters (Cutting speed, Feed and Depth of Cut), which results in an optimal value of material removal rate (MRR) while machining a cylindrical bar made of mild steel. In our study, an attempt has been made to generate a model to predict material removal rate using Regression Technique. Also an attempt has been made to optimize the process parameters using Taguchi Technique. A three level orthogonal array L9 was selected to satisfy the minimum number of experiment conditions for the factors and levels presented in this project.
Classification of manufacturing processAkhtar Kamal
Classification of manufacturing process...
Process for changing Physical properties of work piece.
Casting process
Primary metal working processes.
Shearing and Forming processes.
Joining processes.
Machining processes.
Surface finishing processes.
Cnc tooling for cnc machine(130670119596)Kushal Shah
we have seen what the NC machine is and its various
parts, it is easier to understand what the CNC machine is. CNC is
the short form for Computer Numerical control. We have seen that
the NC machine works as per the program of instructions fed into
the controller unit of the machine. The CNC machine comprises of
the mini computer or the microcomputer that acts as the controller
unit of the machine. While in the NC machine the program is fed
into the punch cards, in CNC machines the program of instructions
is fed directly into the computer via a small board similar to the
traditional keyboard.
Sections:
1. Fundamentals of Manual Assembly Lines
2. Analysis of Single Model Assembly Lines
3. Line Balancing Algorithms
4. Mixed Model Assembly Lines
5. Workstation Considerations
6. Other Considerations in Assembly Line Design
7. Alternative Assembly Systems
MACHINING OPERATIONS AND MACHINE TOOLS
Methods of Holding the Work in a Lathe (Chuck,Collet,face Plate,Holding the Work Between Centers)
Work Holding for Drill Presses
Boring Drilling, Reaming, Tapping Milling
Peripheral Milling vs. Face Milling
Shaper and Planer
Broaching
Optimizing Material removal rate and surface roughness using Taguchi techniqueroymeister007
The objective of this advanced design project is to obtain an optimal setting of turning parameters (Cutting speed, Feed and Depth of Cut), which results in an optimal value of material removal rate (MRR) while machining a cylindrical bar made of mild steel. In our study, an attempt has been made to generate a model to predict material removal rate using Regression Technique. Also an attempt has been made to optimize the process parameters using Taguchi Technique. A three level orthogonal array L9 was selected to satisfy the minimum number of experiment conditions for the factors and levels presented in this project.
Vibration control of newly designed Tool and Tool-Holder for internal treadi...IJMER
Machining processes are manufacturing methods for ensuring processing quality, usually within
relatively short periods and at low cost. Several machining parameters, such as cutting speed, feed rate, work
piece material, and cutting tool geometry have significant effects on the process quality. Many researchers have
studied the impact of these factors. The cutting tool overhang affects the surface quality, especially during the
internal turning process, but this has not been reviewed much [9].
Evaluation of cutting and geometric parameter of single point cutting tool fo...AM Publications
Evaluation of cutting and geometric parameter is one of the most important elements for quality and
productivity which play significant role in today’s manufacturing market. From customers’ viewpoint quality is very
important because the extent of quality of the procured item (or product) influences the degree of satisfaction of the
consumers during usage of the procured goods. Therefore, every manufacturing or production unit should concern
about the quality of the product. Apart from quality, there exists another criterion, called productivity which is directly
related to the profit level and also goodwill of the organization. Turning is the first most common method for cutting
and especially for the finishing machined parts. In a turning operation, it is important task to select cutting and
geometric parameters for achieving high cutting performance. In this paper,particle swarm optimization technique is
used efficiently to optimize cuttingand geometric parameter like cutting speed,feed,depth of cut and rake angle due to
complexity of cutting and geometric parameter optimization. The overall objective of this study is to predict the tool
wear evolution and tool life in orthogonal cutting
Cutting Parameters Optimization in Milling Of P – 20 Tool Steel And EN31B IOSR Journals
The objective of the paper is to obtain an optimal setting of CNC machining process parameters,
cutting speed, feed rate resulting in optimal values of the feed and radial forces while machining P – 20 tool
steel and EN31B with TiN coated tungsten carbide inserts. The effects of the selected process parameters on the
chosen characteristics and the subsequent optimal settings of the parameters have been accomplished using
Taguchi’s parameter design approach.The process parameters considered are – Cutting speed 3000rpm,
2500rpm and 2000rpm. Feed rate 200mm/min, 300mm/min and 400mm/min and depth of cut is 0.2mm.The
effect of these parameters on the feed force, radial force are considered for analysis.The analysis of the results
shows that the optimal settings for low values of feed and radial forces are high cutting speed, low feed rate and
depth of cut.The thrust force and feed force are also taken experimentally using dynamometer for above Cutting
speeds, feed rate and depth of cut. The optimal values for speed, feed rate and depth of cut are taken using
Taguchi technique.Taguchi methods are statistical methods developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the
quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to, engineering, biotechnology, marketing and
advertising.Process used in this project is milling process. Machine selected is Vertical milling center. Machine
model selected is BFW Agni 45. Modeling is done in Pro/Engineer and analysis is done in ANSYS.
Impact of Mechanical System in Machining Of AISI 1018 Using Taguchi Design o...IJMER
The imperative objective of the science of metal cutting is the solution of practical problems
associated with the efficient and precise removal of metal from work piece. Optimization of process
parameters is done to have great control over quality, productivity and cost aspects of the process.
Taguchi method stresses the importance of studying the response variation using the signal–to–noise
(S/N) ratio, resulting in minimization of quality characteristic variation due to uncontrollable
parameter. Orthogonal array was adopted in order to planning the (L9) experimental runs in turning of
AISI 1018 by taking the help of software Minitab 16. The MRR and time
A Review on Design of a Fixture for Rear Coverijsrd.com
In fixtures which are used for machining process, minimizing work piece deformation due to clamping and cutting forces is necessary due to which machining accuracy can be maintained. The different methodologies used for clamping operation in different application by various authors are discussed in this paper. Fixtures are required in different industries according to specific application. Rear Cover is important part in agriculture tractor. The fixture set up for Rear Cover is done manually, which leads to machining defects, poor quality, increase in rejection rate, more cycle time and more hectic to operator. So, there is need to develop system which can help in achieve quality, increase productivity, elimination of human error, reduction in cycle time.
An Advanced Exploration on Fixture DesignIJERA Editor
Widely used in manufacturing, fixtures have a direct impact upon product manufacturing quality, productivity and cost, so much attention has already been paid to the research fixture design and many achievements in this field have been reported. In this paper, a literature survey of fixture design and automation over the past decade is proposed. First, an introduction is given on the fixture applications in industry. Then, significant works done in the design field, including their approaches, requirements and working principles are discussed. Finally, some prospective research trends are also discussed.
Similar to Unit ii process planning activities (20)
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
#vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore#blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #blackmagicforlove #blackmagicformarriage #aamilbaba #kalajadu #kalailam #taweez #wazifaexpert #jadumantar #vashikaranspecialist #astrologer #palmistry #amliyaat #taweez #manpasandshadi #horoscope #spiritual #lovelife #lovespell #marriagespell#aamilbabainpakistan #amilbabainkarachi #powerfullblackmagicspell #kalajadumantarspecialist #realamilbaba #AmilbabainPakistan #astrologerincanada #astrologerindubai #lovespellsmaster #kalajaduspecialist #lovespellsthatwork #aamilbabainlahore #Amilbabainuk #amilbabainspain #amilbabaindubai #Amilbabainnorway #amilbabainkrachi #amilbabainlahore #amilbabaingujranwalan #amilbabainislamabad
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
We have compiled the most important slides from each speaker's presentation. This year’s compilation, available for free, captures the key insights and contributions shared during the DfMAy 2024 conference.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER IN CONDENSING HEAT EXCHANGERS...ssuser7dcef0
Power plants release a large amount of water vapor into the
atmosphere through the stack. The flue gas can be a potential
source for obtaining much needed cooling water for a power
plant. If a power plant could recover and reuse a portion of this
moisture, it could reduce its total cooling water intake
requirement. One of the most practical way to recover water
from flue gas is to use a condensing heat exchanger. The power
plant could also recover latent heat due to condensation as well
as sensible heat due to lowering the flue gas exit temperature.
Additionally, harmful acids released from the stack can be
reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation. reduced in a condensing heat exchanger by acid condensation.
Condensation of vapors in flue gas is a complicated
phenomenon since heat and mass transfer of water vapor and
various acids simultaneously occur in the presence of noncondensable
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen. Design of a
condenser depends on the knowledge and understanding of the
heat and mass transfer processes. A computer program for
numerical simulations of water (H2O) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
condensation in a flue gas condensing heat exchanger was
developed using MATLAB. Governing equations based on
mass and energy balances for the system were derived to
predict variables such as flue gas exit temperature, cooling
water outlet temperature, mole fraction and condensation rates
of water and sulfuric acid vapors. The equations were solved
using an iterative solution technique with calculations of heat
and mass transfer coefficients and physical properties.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
HEAP SORT ILLUSTRATED WITH HEAPIFY, BUILD HEAP FOR DYNAMIC ARRAYS.
Heap sort is a comparison-based sorting technique based on Binary Heap data structure. It is similar to the selection sort where we first find the minimum element and place the minimum element at the beginning. Repeat the same process for the remaining elements.
Gen AI Study Jams _ For the GDSC Leads in India.pdf
Unit ii process planning activities
1. ME8793
PROCESS PLANNING AND COST ESTIMATION
UNIT II
PROCESS PLANNING
ACTIVITIES
PREPARED BY
KARPAKARAJ M
ASSISSTANT PROFESSOR/MECH
THAMIRABHARANI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
TIRUNELVELI.
2. The process planning involves the various
activities such as drawing interpretation,
material evaluation and process selection,
selection of machines and tooling, setting
process parameters, selection of work
holding devices, selection of quality
assurance and inspection methods, cost
estimating and documenting the details using
route sheets.
4. The cutting speed also known as surface cutting
speed or surface speed, can be defined as the
relative speed between the tool and the work
piece.
It is the speed at which the metal is removed by
the cutting tool from the work piece. In case of
lathe machine cutting speed is the peripheral
speed of the work past the cutting tool. It is
expressed in meter/min. or mm/min.
Cutting speed (V) = π DN/60 × 1000 mm/min
5. Nature of the Cut
Work Material
Cutting Tool Material
Cutting Fluid Application
Purpose of Machining
Kind of Machining Operation
Capacity of the Machine Tool
Condition of the Machine Tool
11. Feed is the distance through which the
advances into the work piece during one
revolution of the work piece of the cutter.
It is the relative motion of tool in one
revolution of work piece. It is expressed in
mm/rev.
12. Work material (type, strength, hardness etc.)
Capacity of the machine tool (power, rigidity
etc.)
Cutting tool (material, geometry and
configuration)
Cutting fluid application
Surface finish desired
Type of operation
Nature of cut
13.
14. Depth of cut is the thickness of the layer of
metal removed in one cut or pass, measured
in a direction perpendicular to the machined
surface.
It is the total amount of metal removed per
pass of the cutting tool. It is expressed in
mm. It can vary and depending upon the type
of tool and work material. Mathematically, it
is half of difference of diameters.
Depth of cut (t) = D-d/2 mm
D- Outer diameter, d- Inner diameter.
15.
16. Depth of cut for Turning and Boring
6 mm for roughing and 0.4 mm for finishing.
Depth of cut for Milling
Half of the cutter diameter.
Depth of cut for Drilling
Half the feed rate of the tool and minimum
considered to be 0.3mm.
Depth of cut for Shaping and Planing
The range of 1-4 mm.
Depth of cut for Grinding
The values for feeds selected in mm/pass.
17. The process planner has to identify the need
for a work holding device or a jig or a fixture
for the selected operation.
The process planner will communicate the
identified requirements of the work holding
device to a specialised tool engineer for the
detailed design and drawings that are needed
for manufacturing it.
18. • The main purpose of any work holding device
is to position and hold a work piece in a
precise location while the manufacturing
operation is being performed.
• Types of work holding devices are:
19. A jig may be defined as a work holding device
which locates and holds the work piece for a
specific operation. It is also provided with
tool guiding elements.
Jigs are usually lighter in construction and
direct the tool to the correct position on the
work piece.
Jigs are usually fitted with hardened steel
bushings for guiding or other cutting tools. a
jig is a type of tool used to control the
location and/or motion of another tool.
20. A jig's primary purpose is to provide
repeatability, accuracy, and interchangeability
in the manufacturing of products.
A device that does both functions (holding
the work and guiding a tool) is called a jig.
An example of a jig is when a key is
duplicated, the original is used as a jig so the
new key can have the same path as the old
one.
21. It is a work holding device that holds,
supports and locates the work piece for a
specific operation but does not guide the
cutting tool. It provides only a reference
surface or a device.
What makes a fixture unique is that each one
is built to fit a particular part or shape. The
main purpose of a fixture is to locate and in
some cases hold a work piece during either a
machining operation or some other industrial
process.
22. Jigs Fixtures
It is a work holding device that
holds, supports and locates the
work piece and guides the cutting
tool for a specific operation.
It is a work holding device that
holds, supports and locates the
work piece for a specific operation
but does not guide the cutting tool.
Jigs are not clamped to the drill
press table unless large diameters
to be drilled and there is a necessity
to move the jig to bring one each
bush directly under the drill.
Fixtures should be securely
clamped to the table of the machine
upon which the work is done.
The jigs are special tools
particularly in drilling, reaming,
tapping and boring operation.
Fixtures are specific tools used
particularly in milling machine,
shapers and slotting machine.
Gauge blocks are not necessary. Gauge blocks may be provided for
effective handling.
Lighter in construction. Heavier in construction.
23. Clamping Elements
Locating Elements
Tool guiding and Setting Elements
Tool setting Elements.
24. 1. Location
2. Clamping
3. Loading
4. Stability and Rigidity
5. Clearance for Chips
6. Foot Proof Design
7. Provision for Tool Guides
8. Provision for Indexing
9. Weight
10. Safety
11. Coolant Supply
12. Economy
25. Component
Capacity of the machine
Production requirements
Location
Loading and Unloading arrangements
Clamping arrangements
Clearance between Jig and Component
Ejectors
Base and Body construction
Tool guiding and cutter setting
Rigidity and vibration
Safety
Cost and Materials
26. Types of Jigs:
Here are some simple drill jigs:
a) Template jig
b) Plate jig
c) Diameter jig
d) Channel jig
e) Ring jig
f) Box jig
g) Leaf jig
h) Angle plate jig
i) Indexing jig
j) Trunion jig
27. Types of Fixtures:
These are some Fixtures available:
a) Plate fixture
b) Angle plate fixture
c) Vise-jaw fixture
d) Indexing fixture
e) Multistation fixture
f) Profile fixture
28.
29. The next activity of process planner is to
specify the quality assurance
methods/inspection criteria for all the critical
processing factors such as dimensional and
geometric tolerances and surface finish
specifications that are identified during the
drawing interpretation.
Quality assurance (QA) is a way of preventing
mistakes and defects in manufactured
products and avoiding problems when
delivering products or services to customers.
30. Identification of inspection locations
Identification of the most appropriate
inspection and testing methods
Determination of the frequency of inspection
and testing
Evaluation of inspection and test data.
Identification of corrective action.
31. Quality Defined:
1. Quality is fitness for use.
2. Quality is conformance to requirements.
Definition of TQM:
Total Quality Management (TQM) is the
management approach of an organisation,
centered on quality based on the
participation of all its members and aiming at
long-term success through customer
satisfaction, and benefits to all members of
the organisation and to society.
36. Statistical Quality Control (SQC) is
about employing inspection
methodologies derived from statistical
sampling theory to ensure
conformance to requirements.
37. A control chart is a graph that displays data
taken over time and the variations of this
data.
38. Process capability compares the output of an
in-control process to the specification limits
by using capability indices.
Process capability may be defined as the
“minimum spread of a specific measurement
variation which will include 99.7% of the
measurements from given process.”
In other words, Process Capability = 6σ
39. Objectives of Inspection
To sort out the conforming and non-
conforming product.
To initiate means to determine variations
during manufacture.
To provide means to discover inefficiency
during manufacture.
40. 100% Inspection:
100% or cent percent inspection is quite
common when the number of parts to be
inspected is relatively small.
Sampling Inspection:
The use of sampling inspection is made when
it is not practical or too costly to inspect each
piece.
41. Measurement: The different types of quality
characteristics that are to be measured are:
1. Dimensions/Size,
2. Physical properties,
3. Functionality, and
4. Appearance.
45. The process planner should have the fundamental
knowledge on cost estimating, cost accounting,
various types of costs, components of costs and
calculation of manufacturing of a product.
The knowledge of costing will help the process
planner and the management to take the following
decisions:
•Type of material to be used for a product.
•Volume of product to be manufactured.
•Make or Buy decisions.
•Design of a product.
46. Definition:
Break-even analysis, also known as cost-
volume-profit analysis, is the study of inter-
relationships among a firm’s sales, costs and
operating profit at various levels of output.
It is a simple method of presenting to
management the effect of changes in volume
on profit.
It is concerned with finding the point at which
revenues and costs are exactly equal. This
point is known as break-even point.
47. I. To help in deciding profitable level of output,
below which losses will occur..
II. To compute costs and revenues for all possible
volumes of output to fix budgeted sales.
III. To take decision regarding make or buy.
IV. To take plant expansion decisions.
V. To take equipment requirement decisions.
VI. To indicate margin of safety.
VII. To fix the price of an article to give the desired
property.
VIII. To compare a number of facility locations.
48. The break-even point may be defined as the level
of sales at which total revenues and total costs
are equal. It is a point at which the profit is zero.
The break-even point (BEP) in economics,
business—and specifically cost accounting—is
the point at which total cost and total revenue
are equal, i.e. "even". There is no net loss or gain,
and one has "broken even", though opportunity
costs have been paid and capital has received the
risk-adjusted, expected return.
49. I. Break-even point in terms of physical units:
Let, FC = Fixed cost,
VC = Variable cost per unit,
TVC = Total variable cost,
TC = Total cost
TR = Total revenue i.e. total income,
Q = Sales volume and
SP = Selling price per unit.
TC = FC + (VC X Q)
50. TR = SP X Q
At Break-Even Point(BEP),
Total Cost= Total revenue
TC = TR
FC + (VC X Q) = SP X Q
Or QBEP = FC/(SP-VC)
51. II. Break-even point in terms of Sales Value:
This method is suitable for a multi-product
firm.
Break-even sales
(BEP in rupees) FC / 1 – (VC/SP)
52. The difference between selling price and
variable cost per unit is known as
Contribution or contribution margin.
C = SP – VC
Contribution margin divided by selling price is
known as contribution ratio.
Contribution ratio = (Selling price-Variable cost)/ Selling price.
53. Margin of safety represents the strength of
the business. It enables a business to know
what is the exact amount it has gained or lost
and whether they are over or below the
break-even point.
Margin of safety = (current output - breakeven output)
Margin of safety% = (current output - breakeven output)/current output × 100