The document provides an overview of the Age of Revolution from the late 18th century to the 19th century. Key revolutions during this period include the American Revolution and revolutions in various European countries. These revolutions transformed politics, society, economics, and arts in Europe and its colonies. They brought an end to absolute monarchy and feudalism, established new nation states like Germany and Italy, and advanced ideals of nationalism, liberalism, and representative democracy. The profound changes from these revolutions mark the transition between the Modern Age and Contemporary Age in history.

1. THE AGE OF
REVOLUTION
End 18th Century – 19th Century
IES CAMILO JOSÉ CELA
Rocío Bautista

2. INTRODUCTION
At the end of the 18th Century & during the 19th Century, a series of
revolutionary processes broke out. They were known as “Bourgeois
revolutions” because they were led by the bourgeoisie.
18th Century 19th Century

3. These revolutions caused a deep transformation of Europe & its
colonies.
End of the Ancien Régime:
Nationalism
arose & new
countries were
formed:
• American
countries
• Germany
• Italy
PoliticAL CHANGES
End of Absolutism &
establishment of
political liberalism
SOCIAl changes
End of stratified
society & rise of
bourgeoisie as
dominant social class
ECONOMIC CHANGES
the Industrial Rev.
replaced the
traditional agrarian
economy with a new
industrial economy
ARTISTIC CHANGES
Romanticism &
Realism developed,
which set the basis of
the future artistic
“avant-gardes”

4. The profound changes that these revolutions brought (specially the
French Rev. in 1789), justify it as a reference that marks the end of the
Modern Age & the beginning of a new historical period, the
Contemporary Age.
Prehistory
4,2 m.y.a –
3,000 BC
Ancient
History
3,000 BC –
476 AD
Middle
Ages
476 –
1453/92
Modern
Age
1453/92 -
1789
Contemporary
Age
1789 - today

6. AMERICAN REVOLUTION

7. AMERICAN REVOLUTION:
TIMELINE
1765 Stamp Act
1773 Tea Act
1773 Boston Tea Party
1776 Declaration of Independence
1775-83 War of Independence
1783 Peace of Paris

8. AMERICAN REVOLUTION:
CAUSES
 Colonists lacked representation in British Parliament
 Dependent on Great Britain for trade
 Not allowed to occupy western British territories

9. VIDEO
https://amara.org/en/videos/4sSRywZE8ufQ/info/no-more-king-
schoolhouse-rock/

10. ACTIVITY 1
 Read your article & highlight/underline the important
information.
 As a group, create a mini-presentation about your
topic. This can take any form—you can act out an
event, have an interview, etc.
 Groups:
 Stamp Act
 Boston Tea Party
 Committees of Correspondence
 Thomas Jefferson

12. VIDEO
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SzdcRYLHKpo

13. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION

14. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH
REV.
IDEOLOGICAL
(new ideas)
ECONOMIC
SOCIAL
POLITICAL
The French Revolution didn’t broke out due to one
single cause. It was an intricate & multicausal event.

15. POLITICAL FACTORS:
ABSOLUTISM
• Louis XVI ruled France between 1774 – 1789.
• He was an absolute monarch, unaware of the needs
of his subjects.
• People complained about
how France was governed:
• King had unlimited power.
• No Parliament: French kings
hadn’t summoned the
Estates-General since 1614
(Louis XIII).

16. POLITICAL FACTORS:
VOTING SYSTEM IN THE ÉTATS-GÉNÉRAUX
• One vote per Estate, so the
3rd Estate could always be
outvoted. Clergy & Nobles
usually had similar interests
and voted together.
 This system was disliked
by the bourgeoisie.
 Since they were more
numerous, they argued
for voting per person.

17. SOCIAL FACTORS:
STRATIFIED SOCIETY & THE RISE OF BOURGEOISIE
• The bourgeoisie were rapidly
growing in wealth & number.
Many of them shared a
similar lifestyle to the nobles.
• However, they complained
of the privileges of the
nobility & the clergy, and
that they unfairly lacked
political influence. Thus, they
pursued a new social
division based on merit &
social usefulness.

18. ECONOMIC FACTORS:
INCREASING POVERTY
It was a time of economic crisis:
bad harvests, rising unemployment,
rising prices, poverty & hunger.

19. ECONOMIC FACTORS:
GROWING GOVERNMENT DEBT & EXPENDITURE
There was a notable
deficit (government
expenditure
exceeded its
income) due to:
- Expensive external
policy (7 Years war,
American War of
independence…
- Large Royal court
- Debts’ interests

20. ECONOMIC FACTORS:
GROWING TAX BURDEN ON THE THIRD ESTATE
Apart of the feudal
fees & the tithe to
nobility & clergy, the
Third Estate (peasants
& bourgeoisie) had to
pay more & more
taxes to the king to
finance the country’s
high expenses &
debts.

21. ECONOMIC FACTORS:
EXTRAVAGANT & LUXURIOUS LIFESTYLE
OF THE ROYALTY
The kings Louis XVI &
Marie Antoinette & the
nobility entertained
extravagantly at the Court
of Versailles at the
taxpayers’ expense.
There was a huge contrast
between the opulent
lifestyle of the French
aristocracy & the struggles
of the common citizens.

22. ECONOMIC FACTORS:
ATTEMPT TO IMPLEMENT A TAX REFORM
Given the desperate
situation of France’s finances
(the government was
unable to pay national debt
because the state was
bankrupt), the king tried to
make the privileged classes
pay taxes. Obviously, the
nobility & clergy refused to
do so. In this cartoon from the time, Louis is looking at the
cases and asks "where is the tax money?"

23. IDEOLOGICAL FACTORS:
SPREAD OF ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS
• Criticism of the Ancien Régime
(absolutism, stratified society,
religious influence…) & spread of
new ideas:
 Separation of powers (Montesquieu)
 Freedom & equality of all the
people, popular sovereignty…
(Rousseau)
 Freedom of speech & separation of
church and state (Voltaire)
• Belief that it is possible to create a
better society & improve people’s
life by means of reason & scientific
advancements.

24. IDEOLOGICAL FACTORS:
AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
• American declaration of
independence inspired the
French soldiers:
• everyone was born equal
• every man had rights that
could not be taken away
• the government should act
in the interests of the people
• Some people started to say
that a country should be run
by the government chosen by
the people.

25. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTON
ECONOMIC
POLITICAL
SOCIAL
IDEOLOGICAL
ACTIVITY 2

26.  Increasing poverty & hunger
 Extravagant spending in the Royal court
 The spread of the ideas of the “philosophes” (separation of powers, freedom & equality of
all the people, popular sovereignty, freedom of speech, separation of church and state)
 Unfair tax structure
 États-généraux voting system was unfair (1 vote per Estate outvoted the 3rd Estate)
 Rise of the bourgeoisie, who were more numerous & wealthier and demanded a more
equal society.
 King Louis tries to tax the nobles
 Critical situation of France’s finances (huge deficit).
 American Revolution and its ideas of freedom, equality and representation.
 Absolute monarch who ignored his subjects’ needs and preferred personal interests to
France’s interests
 Parliament had not been called in 175 years
 Increased tax burden on the Third Estate, who had to pay more taxes to finance the
country’s high expenses & debts.
 Expensive foreign policy & growing government debt
 Stratified society, in which the clergy and the nobility enjoyed certain privileges (no taxes,
different laws…)
 Bad harvests & bread rising prices
 Contrast between the opulent lifestyle of the French aristocracy & the struggles of
the common citizens.
 Privileges of 1st and 2nd Estates
 Bourgeoisie complained about their lack of political influence

27. Read the text at the top of
page 37 (“The opening of the
Estates-General”).
Do exercise 4 (p.37)
ACTIVITY 2

28. THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION:
THE ÉTATS-GÉNÉRAUX OF 1789
• MAY 5th 1789: Louis XVI summoned the Estates-General at Versailles to find
a solution to the financial problems of the French government.
• They sat for several weeks in May-June 1789 but came to a dead end since
they didn’t reach an agreement over the first discussion: whether they
should vote by estate or by person.
Nº of representatives
of each estates:
• Nobility  300
• Clergy  300
• 3rd estate  600

29. • JUNE 1789: the Estates-General were brought to an end when the
Third Estate formed a revolutionary independent assembly.
• Louis XVI closed the hall where the
new assembly met, so they
moved their deliberations to a
nearby tennis court, where they
swore the 'Tennis Court Oath‘:
agreement not to separate until
they had established a
constitution.
• Most of the clergy & some nobles
joined them because their
immobility had served only to
accelerate events.
THE BEGINNING OF THE REVOLUTION:
THE ÉTATS-GÉNÉRAUX OF 1789

30. PHASES OF THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION
ETAPA MODERADA ETAPA RADICAL
FIN DE LA REVOLUCIÓN

31. CONSTITUTIONAL
MONARCHY
(1789 – 1792)
1ST REPUBLIC
(1792 – 1799)
1789 – 1791
National Constituent
Assembly
1791 – 1792
Legislative
Assembly
1792 – 1794
National
Convention
1792 – 1793
GIRONDINS
(moderate)
1793 – 1794
JACOBINS
(radical)
1795 – 1799
Directory
(moderate)
FRENCH
REVOLUTION
(1789 – 1799)
Constitution 1791
 moderate
Constitution 1793
 radical
Constitution 1795
 moderate again

32. MODERATE PHASE (1789 – 1792):
THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY

33. • JULY 1789: the rebels created the NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY. Its
aim was to draw up a constitution for France.
• JULY 14th 1789: STORMING OF
THE BASTILLE. Fearing that the
army would dissolve the
National Constituent
Assembly, people attacked
the fortress & prison of the
BASTILLE (symbol of the Old
Regime) to stock up of
weapons & gunpowder.
• Riots & chaos spread across
France. Many nobles, fearing
for their safety, fled away.

34. LA GRANDE PEUR
(THE GREAT FEAR)
Popular peasants’ revolts erupted
across French countryside.

35. • MEASURES TAKEN BY THE NATIONAL CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY (1789 – 1791):
 Abolishment of feudalism: serfdom, feudal fees & the tithe were suppressed.
 Church’s property was nationalized and guilds were banned.
 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789)
• Equal taxes & laws for everyone.
• Freedom & property rights.
 Constitution of 1791: 1st French Constitution.
It established political liberalism in France:
• Constitutional Monarchy
• Popular sovereignty
• Separation of powers
• Censitary suffrage: only the wealthiest men
had right to vote.
The 3 estates work together to draft the constitution.
The Third Estate is in the centre.

36. “Declaration of the
Rights of Man and of
the Citizen”

37. CONSTITUTION OF 1791

38. • Once the Constitution was published, the representatives of the new
Parliament (LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY) were elected to make new laws
for France (legislative power). In this assembly 2 main political blocs
confronted:
GIRONDINS
• Majority
• Moderate revolutionaries
• Represented the high
bourgeoisie
JACOBINS
• Minority
• Radical revolutionaries
• Led by Robespierre
• Represented the petite
bourgeoisie
VS

39. In 1791, the Legislative Assembly had to face some problems:
 APRIL: Attack of Austria & Prussia, who wanted to stop the revolution.
 JUNE: Luis XVI tried to flee France, but he was caught.
Despite he had swore the
Constitution, Louis XVI and
his family were caught
trying to flee France to join
the counterrevolutionary
Austrian army.

40. RADICAL PHASE (1792 – 1799):
THE 1ST FRENCH REPUBLIC

41. The war & the treason of Louis XVI worsened the situation, so the sans-
culottes (lowest urban classes) who’s problems hadn’t been solved by the
new revolutionary government, increased their violence. In August they
assaulted the Tuileries Palace.
Tuileries Palace (where the King lived since 1789)Sans-culotte

42. Due to the radicalization of the revolution & the war against European
absolutist monarchies, new elections were called to form a new assembly:
NATIONAL CONVENTION that would held both, legislative & executive
powers.
Measures taken by this
assembly:
 1792: the monarchy
was abolished, and
a Republic was
established.
 1793: Louis XVI &
Marie-Antoinette
were sentenced &
guillotined.
These events intensified the war against an alliance of European absolutist
monarchies that wanted to reverse the Revolution.

43. 1793: the war threaten the Revolution, so
Robespierre, the leader of the radical bloc
(Jacobins) seized the power of the National
Convention:
 Most radical & bloodiest period of the
French Revolution: “Reign of Terror” 
thousands of nobles were guillotined.
 New Constitution (1793) (more radical) 
universal male suffrage.
 Economic reforms to favour the sans-
culottes.

44. 1794: the moderate bourgeoisie (Girondins), shocked by Jacobin
radicalism, took control again…
 Deposed & guillotined
Robespierre & his supporters
 Established a more moderate
government. They enacted a new
Constitution (1795)  re-
established censitary suffrage.

45. 1795 - 1799: the Girondins left the executive power in the hands of a
5-member Directory.
 Very unstable & difficult situation since they had to deal with a
double opposition:
• Nobles  wanted to restore absolutism.
• Lowest classes  supported Jacobins.
 Carried out numerous military campaigns
against the foreign enemies of the revolution
(Austria, Prussia, Italy…).
In this context of crisis and war, a young &
outstanding general, Napoleon Bonaparte,
seized power in 1799 by a coup d’état. It was
the beginning of the Napoleonic Era.

46. Do exercise 1 (p.38)
ACTIVITY 3

47. CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY (1789 – 1792)
National Constituent Assembly (1789 – 1791)
 May 5th 1789: Beginning of the Estates-General
 July 1789: Creation of the National Constituent Assembly
 14th July 1789: Storming of the Bastille
 1791: 1st French Constitution
Legislative Assembly (1791 – 1792)
 1791  Austria & Prussia attack France & Louis XVI tries to flee France (Flight to Varennes).
1ST REPUBLIC (1792 – 1799)
National Convention (1792 – 1795)
 1792: abolishment of the monarchy. The 1st French Republic is established.
 1793: Louis XVI & Marie-Antoinette are guillotined. This intensifies the war against an alliance of
European counterrevolutionary monarchies putting the Revolution at risk, so Robespierre (leader
of the radical bloc: Jacobins) seizes power (“Reign of Terror” & new Constitution).
 1794: Girondins take control again and guillotine Robespierre & his supporters
Directory (1795 – 1799)
 1795: new Constitution.
 1799: given the context of war & internal crisis (double opposition: absolutists & jacobins)
Napoleon Bonaparte, seizes power by a coup d’état. Beginning of the Napoleonic Empire.

48. NAPOLEONIC ERA
(1799 – 1815)
…the final phase of the French Revolution…

49. 1799: Napoleon Bonaparte seized the power by a coup d'état.
PHASES DURING NAPOLEON’S ERA:
a) 1799 – 1804: CONSULATE: power was shared by
3 consuls. However, Napoleon held the position
of “First Consul”, so in fact he held all real
power.
b) 1804 – 1815: THE EMPIRE: Napoleon was
elected “Emperor of the French”, and became
the sole ruler of the French empire.

50. THE CONSULATE
1799 - 1804
MAIN ACHIEVEMENTS
Peace in France
Allowed exiled nobility to return
back to France.
He reconciled with the Catholic
Church by signing a Concordat
Internal reforms
Civil Code: single set of laws
equal for all the French.
Public education system
(lycées)
Equal tax system for everyone
These achievements made Napoleon very popular…
 1802: Consul for Life
 1804: Emperor of the French (ratified by a plebiscite)

51. CONCORDAT OF 1801 WITH THE HOLY SEE
Agreement through which…
French government: recognized
“Catholicism as the religion of the
majority of the French”
The Catholic Church: recognized the
new French government, and gave up
claiming back the lands confiscated to it
during the French Revolution.

52. CIVIL CODE (Napoleonic Code)
It guaranteed…
equality upon the law
freedom
individual rights
property rights (economic liberalism)…
separation of Church & State

53. REFORMS IN EDUCATION (LYCÉES)
Napoleon built many “lycees” (schools for boys age 10 to 16) because he thought education was essential to
produce citizens capable of filling positions in his bureaucracy & military. Although he did not create a system of
mass education, education was more available to the middle class than it ever had been before. He saw
education as a way of indoctrinating "right-thinking" citizens from an early age. At a meeting in 1807 he declared:
“Of all our institutions public education is the most important. Everything depends on it, the present and the future. It is
essential that the morals and political ideas of the generation which is now growing up should no longer be dependent upon
[…] the circumstances of the moment. We must secure unity: we must be able to cast a whole generation in the same
mould.”

54. PLEBSICITE OF 1804
PLEBSICITE = a direct vote of the people of a country in regard to
some important public question.
Napoleon
became
emperor as
NAPOLEON I

55. THE EMPIRE
1804 - 1815
• Wars between France
& other European
powers were constant
since the beginning of
the French Revolution
until 1815.
• France, as the leading country of the Revolutionary process,
encouraged people of other countries to rise up against the
Old Regime.
• Napoleon’s army freed European people of the chains of the
Old Regime… but also subjugated & occupied territories by
force, which led to deep nationalist reactions.

56. Napoleon defeated
several coalitions of
European countries (UK,
Austria, Russia, Prussia,
Spain…).
These victories led him
to control most of
Western Europe & to
create a great empire
that included:
 Spain
 Netherlands
 Italian territories
 Holy Roman Empire
The creation of the Empire:
1804 - 1812

57. Battle of Austerlitz
(1805) – in modern day
Czech Republic.
One of the greatest victories
achieved by Napoleon. He
defeated a larger Russian-Austrian
army (led by Tsar Alexander I &
Holy Roman Emperor Francis II)
Entry of Napoleon I into
Berlin (1806)

58. Napoleon military genius made him the master of Europe.
In conquered countries  he set up liberal governments (constitutions,
abolishment of feudalism, equal taxes & laws for everyone…) ruled by
members of his family. Ex: Spain  José Bonaparte (brother)

59. The only enemy he
couldn’t defeat was UK:
 British victory at the
Battle of Trafalgar
(1805)  France &
Spain VS UK.
 Unable to defeat Britain at
sea, Napoleon tried to
subjugate it with an
economic block-trade
(prohibition to trade with
UK). However, this system
failed to bring Britain to its
knees.
Trafalgar square (London).
In the centre, Nelson's
Column to commemorate
Admiral Horatio Nelson,
who died at this battle.

60. Napoleon began to suffer important defeats:
 Russia (1812)
 Spain (Spanish War of Independence 1808 – 1814)
Decline & fall of Napoleon:
1812 - 1815

61. Instead of giving battle, the
Russians retreated, destroying
everything that could be of use
to the French army (fields,
houses,…). When Napoleon
reached Moscow in September
he found it burning. There was
nothing there which could feed &
house his troops for the winter, so
he was forced to turn back
towards home just as winter was
beginning. His Grand Army ran
out of supplies and soldiers died
of disease and the bitter cold of
the Russian winter.
Russian campaign
(1812)

62. “La carga de los Mamelucos”
(“El 2 de mayo de 1808 en Madrid”)
FRANCISCO DE GOYA
“Los fusilamientos del
3 de mayo”
“Esta maldita Guerra de España
fue la causa primera de todas
las desgracias de Francia. Todas
las circunstancias de mis
desastres se relacionan con
este nudo fatal […] esta
maldita guerra me ha perdido.”
Napoleón Bonaparte

63. 1813: Battle of Leipzig, Napoleon’s greatest defeat against
another coalition of European states. After it, the allied
countries entered Paris.
Russian army enters Paris (1814)

64.  1814: Napoleon was exiled to the
island of Elbe & French
monarchy was restored.
 1815: he escaped from the island of Elbe & recaptured the
throne for 100 days. However, he was finally defeated at the
Battle of Waterloo & exiled to Saint Helena, where he died
(1821)
Battle of
Waterloo
(Belgium)
Napoleon exiled at
Saint Helena (1815)

65. Saint Helena islandElbe island

66. Napoleon’s
tomb at
Les
Invalides
(Paris)

67.  What was the “Consulate”? What were the main achievements of
Napoleon in this period?
 When & how did Napoleon became emperor?
 Napoleon’s conquests had positive consequences for European people
because it freed them of the chains of the Old Regime. However,
what negative consequence did they have?
 What type of governments did Napoleon set up in the conquered
countries? Who ruled them? Give an example.
 Where is Napoleon buried?
 Devise a diagram of Napoleon's Empire. Divide it into 2 periods:
 Creation of the empire: 1804 – 1812
 Decline & fall of Napoleon: 1812 - 1815
ACTIVITY 4

68. THE RESTORATION
(1815 – 1848)

69. • The French Revolution & Napoleonic Wars had spread
liberalism through Europe between 1789 – 1815.
• After the defeat of Napoleon (B.Leipzig & B.Waterloo),
the powers who had defeated him met at the
CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1814 - 1815). It led Europe into a
new period  Absolutism was restored (temporarily!)

71. CONGRESS OF VIENNA
(1814 - 15)
PARTICIPANTS powers
who had defeated
Napoleon:
• UK
• Austria
• Prussia
• Russia
AGREEMENTS
Restore the Old
Regime. Absolute
monarchies deposed
by Napoleon were
restored, putting an
end to liberal political
systems.
Redraw political map
of Europe (new
boundaries) in order
to re-establish
European Balance &
guarantee peace.
They did so ignoring
nationalistic feelings.
Periodic Congresses
should be held, to try
to solve problems
between countries
diplomatically
(without wars)
Right to intervene in
another country if it
was threaten by
revolution. To do so,
they created several
alliances:
- Holy Alliance (Austria,
Prussia, Russia)
- Quadruple Alliance (+ UK)

72. Example of territorial
changes agreed at
the Congress of
Vienna ignoring
nationalistic feelings,
culture, religion…
- Russia: annexed Finland & part of Poland.
- Netherlands: annexed Low Countries.
- Prussia: annexed German territories & part of Poland.
- Austria: annexed territories in the north of Italy & other
areas in central Europe.

73. Caricatures of the
Congress of Vienna
(1814-15)
Major powers reshaped
European boundaries to
guarantee balance of power…
but ignored nationalistic
feelings!!!

74. ACTIVITY 5: Copy & complete
CONGRESS
OF
_________
(1814 - ____)
AGREEMENTS
Restore the _____ _____________. Restoration of
___________ monarchies ____________ by
Napoleon. End of ___________ political systems.
_________ political _____ of Europe (new
boundaries) to re-establish ______________
____________. Done ignoring _______________
feelings.
Periodic _____________, to solve problems
between countries _______________.
Right to ___________ in another country if it was
threaten by revolution. Alliances:
- _______ Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia)
- _____________ Alliance (Austria, Prussia, Russia, ____)
PARTICIPANTS:
powers who
had
____________
Napoleon
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
QUESTION: Give 2 examples
of how nationalism was
ignored at the Congress of
Vienna.

75. THE UPRISING
(El motín)
Daumier

76. Despite the Restoration (1815), the expansion of the new ideas & values
couldn’t be contained…
LIBERAL ideology spread extensively among the bourgeoisie & commoners.
Economics Politics Society
Absolutism
Liberalism

77. Economics Politics Society
Absolutism
• Government controls
trade
• Nobility owns land
• Common people work
and pay taxes
• Monarch controls the
government
• Stratified society
• Privileges for monarchs,
nobility, and clergy
Liberalism
Absolutism vs Liberalism

78. Economics Politics Society
Absolutism
• Government controls
trade
• Nobility owns land
• Common people work
and pay taxes
• Monarch controls the
government
• Stratified society
• Privileges for monarchs,
nobility, and clergy
Liberalism
• Individuals have free
trade
• Bourgeoisie owns
land and businesses
• Common people work
for profit and pay
lower taxes
• Government is chosen by
the people
• Separation of powers
• Society based on equality
• Privileges are earned by the
wealthy
Absolutism vs Liberalism

79. After the Restoration of
absolutism, 3 WAVES OF
LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS took
place all across Europe:
 1820
 1830
 1848

80. Revolutions of 1820
Liberals in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and Russia rise up
against absolute monarchs.
The bourgeoisie and
common people established
constitutions that gave them
more rights.
After the revolutions, many
monarchs were able to
regain the power they lost.

81. Revolutions of 1830
France established a
constitutional monarchy and
the trend spread through
Europe, including Belgium,
Germany, Italy, and Poland,
Bourgeoisie leaders
established censitary voting
rights, so wealthy and
educated individuals had
more voting power than
commoners.

82. Revolutions of 1848
France established a Republic,
and other European nations
were inspired to create
constitutional monarchies or
remove their monarchs from
power completely.
Commoners demanded
popular sovereignty, voting
rights for all men, and social
equality.

83. • Get into teams of 5. Decide who will study each revolution.
• Separate and get into a Revolution Group to fill in your own
section.
• Teams come back together. Teach your team members
about your Revolution.
• Answer the questions at the bottom with your team.
ACTIVITY 6

84. Liberal Revolutions - Who won?
The bourgeoisie gained political power,
wealth, and influence. They had the power
to elect the government and make profits
from their businesses.
Serfdom and slavery was
eliminated in almost every
European country, although
they still had fewer rights
than the bourgeoisie.

85. Liberal Revolutions - Who lost?
Monarchs lost much of their power in
constitutional monarchies. Nobles &
clergy also lost their privileges.
Commoners did not gain the
power they hoped for. Poor
and uneducated workers had
few voting rights, and their
economic situation was as
bad as before 1789. Women
still could not vote at all.

86. Consequence…
The Third Estate did not benefit equally from the revolutions…
 Bourgeoisie benefited
 Commoners did not benefit
≠

87. CONSEQUENCES OF
LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS
MORE FAIR SOCIETY  kings, nobles & clergy lost
power & privileges.
However, among the former THIRD ESTATE A GAP
WAS OPENED:
- Bourgeoisie  benefited the most of these
revolutions: gained political power & economic
liberalism (free trade) enabled them to become
richer.
- Commoners  failed to achieve deeper
transformations (no political rights for them, no
improvement in their living conditions…). This
made them develop class consciousness &
began to organize themselves in order to stand
up against the bourgeoisie & the liberal State they
had helped create (future “Labour Movement”)
A conservative
LIBERALISM WAS ADOPTED
in most European
countries:
- Constitutions
- Separation of powers
- National sovereignty
(≠ popular sovereignty)
- Censitary suffrage
(≠ universal suffrage)
- Equal laws for everyone
- Individual liberty & rights

89. 1) What’s the difference between nation & state?
2) What’s a nation-state?
3) Answer the following questions about NATIONALISM:
 What is it?
 Why did it arose during the 19th Century?
 What consequence did its expansion through Europe & America have?
4) Fill in the chart:
ACTIVITY 7
ITALIAN UNIFICATION GERMAN UNIFICATION
Chronology
Main figures
Stages of
the
unification

90. NATION: community
that share a common
culture (language,
religion, traditions,
history…)
STATE: independent
political entity with clear
geographic boundaries
Sometimes (but not always!), these two entities overlap
 when a homogeneous group of people with a
common culture have their own independent
government and recognized boundaries, the entity is
called a NATION-STATE.
≠

91. NATIONALISM
 During the 19th Century, nationalistic feelings arose as a
reaction against:
 French domination during the Napoleonic invasions.
 Artificial boundaries established in the Congress of Vienna.
 It spread through different European & American territories and
gave birth to new States.

92. ITALIAN UNIFICATION
 SITUATION BEFORE
THE UNIFICATION:
Italy was divided in
several states.
Controlled by Austria or ruled by
Austrian princes
Ruled by the Pope
Ruled by the Bourbon dynasty
Ruled
by the
Savoy
dynasty

93. ITALIAN UNIFICATION
 STAGES (1859 – 70):
1) Victor Emmanuel II (king of
Piedmont-Sardinia) defeats Austria
& annexes:
 Lombardy
 Duchies in central Italy (Parma,
Modena, Tuscany)

94. ITALIAN UNIFICATION
2) Garibaldi (general
of the kingdom of
Piedmont-Sardinia)
defeats & annexes
the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies.
1861: with this annexation, the
KINGDOM OF ITALY was
founded.

95. ITALIAN UNIFICATION
3) Unity was finally achieved with the
annexation of:
 Venice
 Papal States
1870: after these annexations, the
KINGDOM OF ITALY became a
constitutional monarchy with
capital in Rome under the rule of
king Victor Emmanuel II.

96. GERMAN UNIFICATION
 SITUATION BEFORE THE
UNIFICATION: in the
Congress of Vienna
Germany became a
confederation of 39 small
independent states led by
Austria. The main ones
were:
 Prussia
 Austria
They would
confront to
lead the
confederation

97. GERMAN UNIFICATION
 STAGES (1864 – 1871):
1) Unification of the Northern States:
Prussia defeated Austria (Austro-
Prussian War, 1866), which was
expelled from the Confederation,
now led by Prussia.
WILLIAM I of
Prussia (king)
Otto von Bismarck
(Chancellor of Prussia)

98. GERMAN UNIFICATION
2) Prussia annexes the French
territories of Alsace & Lorraine
(Franco-Prussian War, 1870) &
the southern German states.
1871: after these annexations, the
2nd GERMAN EMPIRE (REICH) was
created. It was a constitutional
federal empire under the rule of
emperor (kaiser) William I of
Germany.