The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the human ear and hearing process. It describes how sound waves are captured by the outer ear and transmitted through the middle ear bones to vibrate the cochlea's basilar membrane. This triggers nerve impulses that travel to the brain. The cochlea analyzes sound frequencies using the traveling wave theory. Hearing loss can occur due to conductive issues or damage to cochlear hair cells and nerves. Diagnostic tools include audiometry for testing hearing thresholds and otoscopy for ear exams.
Olfaction is one the major sense. In the following presentation, a brief description of the olfactory system is given. In this following topics are discussed: olfactory membrane, olfactory bulb, odor pathway, anosmia, directional smelling and plasticity. By the end of it, you will be able to describe the olfactory pathway of the nervous system.
Olfaction is one the major sense. In the following presentation, a brief description of the olfactory system is given. In this following topics are discussed: olfactory membrane, olfactory bulb, odor pathway, anosmia, directional smelling and plasticity. By the end of it, you will be able to describe the olfactory pathway of the nervous system.
This presentation explains the working of the ear... It is best for medical students.. It includes all the key points necessary for an exam too... So this presentation can also be used as a notes for your exams...
olfactory system and functioning, pathway of olfaction, neural tract involved in olfaction , endocrine pathway of olfaction, cells and neurons involved in olfaction
This presentation explains the working of the ear... It is best for medical students.. It includes all the key points necessary for an exam too... So this presentation can also be used as a notes for your exams...
olfactory system and functioning, pathway of olfaction, neural tract involved in olfaction , endocrine pathway of olfaction, cells and neurons involved in olfaction
The Ear, Anatomy, Physiology, Clinical diseases, and pathology, hearing testsHamzehKYacoub
Ear is composed of three parts: External ear, middle ear, and the Inner ear.
Hearing tests (Rinne's and Weber's tests).
Most important hearing and ear diseases are included.
Human ear, organ of hearing and equilibrium that detects and analyzes sound by transduction (or the conversion of sound waves into electrochemical impulses) and maintains the sense of balance (equilibrium).
HEARING - MECHANISM, DYSFUNCTION AND TREATMENTANUGYA JAISWAL
THE DOCUMENT CONTAINS -
1.) BIOCHEMICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF HEARING.
2.) ROLE OF VARIOUS ORGAN/SYSTEM INVOLVED IN ITS REGULATION.
3.) DYSFUNCTION OF EAR
4.) TREATMENT OF HEARING LOSS
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
2. What is Sound ?
(Perception of) pressure waves generated by
vibrating air molecules.
Sound is perceived when longitudinal
vibrations of the molecules in the external
environment, i.e. alternate phases of
condensation & rarefaction of the molecules,
strikes the tympanic membrane.
4. Generally loudness of sound is correlated with the
amplitude of sound wave (subjective interpretation of
the intensity of a sound)
Decibel - logarithmic scale to measure the intensity of sound
waves
Human amplitude range - 0 dB - 120 dB (avg sound intensity
of human speech is 65 dB)
Greater than 100 dB can damage to auditory apparatus &
greater than 120 dB can cause pain
The pitch is correlated with the frequency ( no of
waves or cycles per second )
The sound frequencies audible in humans - 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
Normal pitch of male – 120 Hz
female - 250 HZ
5.
6. THE EAR
Houses two senses
Hearing
Equilibrium (balance)
Receptors are mechanoreceptors
7. ANATOMY OF THE EAR
The ear is divided into three areas
External (outer) ear
Middle ear (tympanic cavity)
Inner ear (labyrinth)
9. THE EXTERNAL EAR
Involved in hearing only
Structures of the external ear:
Auricle (pinna), lobule, external auditory canal;
elastic cartilage
External acoustic meatus (External
auditory canal)
Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands
Ends at the tympanic membrane
Tympanic membrane- membrane that vibrates
in response to sound waves
Ceruminous glands- wax secreting glands-
protects delicate lining of meatus and helps
prevent microorganisms from entering the ear
10.
11. THE MIDDLE EAR (TYMPANIC
CAVITY)
Air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
Only involved in the sense of hearing
Oval window- found on cochlea
Round window- pressure window on cochlea
Otitis media- inflammation of the middle ear; due to
bacteria or allergies, common in children whose
auditory tubes are short and horizontal
12. THE MIDDLE EAR
There are several openings into the middle ear:
The opening from the auditory canal is covered by
the tympanic membrane
The Pharyngeotympanic auditory tube (Eustachian
tube) connects middle ear to pharynx
Allows for equalizing pressure
Two into the internal ear, the oval window and the
round window
Clinical importance of these openings is that they
provide routes for infection to travel
13. BONES OF THE MIDDLE EAR
Three small bones (ossicles) span the cavity
Malleus (hammer)
Incus (anvil)
Stapes (stirrip)
Function
help amplify sound
Vibrations from eardrum move the malleus anvil
stirrup inner ear
15. INNER EAR
Also termed labyrinth
Consist of two main parts:
Bony labyrinth consisting of three parts:
vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals
Membranous labyrinth
• Cochlea--Functions in hearing
• Semicircular canals--Functions in equilibrium
• Vestibule--Functions in equilibrium
16. INNER EAR
Bony labyrinth is filled with Perilymph fluid,
similar to CSF
Endolymph is the clear potassium-rich fluid that
fills the membranous labyrinth
These fluids conduct sound vibrations
17. COCHLEA AND COCHLEAR DUCT
Cochlea means snail
In the center is a cone-shaped core termed
modiolus
The modiolus houses the spiral ganglion that
has cell bodies of the first sensory neurons in
the auditory relay
Cochlear ducts are the only part of the internal
ear concerned with hearing
18.
19.
20.
21. ORGAN OF CORTI
Contains hearing receptor cells (hair cells)
Above the hair cells is a tectorial membrane
On upper surface of basilar membrane
Different vibration frequencies move different regions of
the basilar membrane and cause hair cells to shear
against the tectorial membrane
Depolarization of hair cells transmits impulse along the
cochlear branch of the vestibulo-cochlear sensory
nerve
24. Vibration of Basilar Membrane and the
Traveling Wave Theory
• Sound wave entering at the oval window is to
cause the basilar membrane at the base of the
cochlea to vibrate
• Different frequencies cause vibrations at
different locations (places) along basilar
membrane
• Higher frequencies at base, lower frequencies
at top
25. 25
MECHANICS OF HEARING
sounds set up vibrations in air
beat against the eardrum
push a chain of tiny bones
press fluid in inner ear against membranes
set up forces that pull on hair cells
stimulate neurons that send impulses to brain
interpretation impulses
hearing
27. Transmission of sound:
Airborne sound → external auditory canal →
tympanic membrane →hammer, anvil, stirrup
→ oval window → vestubularcochlear nerve →
cochlear nuclei in medulla → superior olivary
nucleus → up the lateral leminiscus →
inferior colliculus → primary auditory cortex
in the temporal lobe
28.
29.
A. Perceiving Pitch (Frequency)
location of vibration on the basilar membrane
B. Perceiving Differences in Loudness (Intensity)
amplitude increases, more hair cells of the basilar
membrane (with same pitch) are activated
C. localizing Source of Sound
1. superior olivary nucleus - first point where sound from
both ears come together
2. relative intensity - the amplitude of sound waves hitting
the different ears
3. relative timing - the difference in timing in which a
sound reaches both ears
Processing of Auditory Information
30. Deafness
Hearing loss- due to disease (ex. meningitus),
damage, or age related
Conduction deafness- prevention or blocking
sounds from entering inner ear.
Ear wax, ruptured ear drum, middle ear
inflammation (otitis media), and otosclerosis
(hardening of the ossicles of the ear)
Sensoneural deafness- damage to the neural
structures from any point from the cochlear hair cells
to and including the auditory cortical cells
Nerve deafness
31. TYPES OF DEAFNESS
Conductive Deafness Sensorineural Deafness
due to impaired sound
transmission in external and
middle ear
impacts all sound frequencies
Causes
plugging of the EAC with
cerumen of foreign bodies
otitis externa and otitis media
perforation of eardrum
otosclerosis
due to loss of cochlear hair cells
(common), problems with the
nerves or within central
auditory pathways (nerve
deafness)
impairs the ability to hear
certain pitches (permanent)
causes
aminoglycoside antibiotics
(streptomycin and gentamycin)
prolonged exposure to noise
tumors and vascular damage
32. Deafness
Tinnitus- ringing or clicking sound in the absence of
auditory stimuli
1st symptom of cochlear nerve degeneration
May result from inflammation of the inner or middle
ear
Side effect from medicine
Symptoms- vertigo, nausea, hearing loss
33. DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES AND
PROCEDURES
Audiometry
The process of measuring how well an individual hears
various frequencies of sound waves
Otoscopy
The use of an otoscope to view and examine the
tympanic membrane and various parts of the outer ear