This document discusses sensitometry, which is the quantitative evaluation of how a photographic film responds to radiation and processing. Sensitometry involves producing a sensitometric strip by exposing a film to different levels of radiation and then plotting the characteristic curve. The characteristic curve shows the optical density of the film plotted against the log of relative exposure. Key features of the curve include gross fog, threshold, contrast, latitude, speed/sensitivity and maximum density. Understanding a film's sensitometric properties allows for reproducing an invisible x-ray image with optimal contrast and detail.

1. Sensitometry
Quantitive evaluation of how a film
emulsion is responds to radiation
and processing.
‫التقييم الكمى لستجابة الفلم للشعة و‬
‫التحميض‬

2. Objectives
The student should be able to:
Describe the importance of the study
Define the relevant terms
Describe the methods of producing a
sensitometric strip
Plot the characteristic curve
Describe the Features of the characteristic
curve
Describe the importance & practical
applications

3. Why is the study important?
To produce images with optimum contrast
that reveal high details of the object
examined.
Optimum contrast?
Low contrast (long scale contrast)
High contrast (Short scale contrast)

4. Introduction
Photosensitive materials (x-ray films) are
used to record the invisible x-ray image
It is required to reproduce all the
characteristics of the invisible image in
visible form.
The films ability to do so depends on its
sensitometric properties.
It is advantages to have a sound
knowledge of sensitometric properties of
x-ray films.

5. vi
In
le
ib
s
X-ray tube
Plot of incident x-ray
beam intensity
of
on ge
ti a
a
rm y im
Fo -ra
x
Object
Invisible x-ray
image
Plot of transmitted x-ray
beam intensity

6. Invisible x-ray image
kV mA Sec FFD
E
Supporting tissue (m)
B
B1
EM
B2
E B1
E B2
T2
T1
ET1
EM
T3
Air
Invisible
X-ray
image
ET2
ET3
EA

7. What is Sensitometry?
The scientific study of the response of
photosensitive material to different levels
of exposures.
How is it done?
Producing a sensitometric strip and
plotting a characteristic curve.

8. What is Response of exposure &
How is it manifested?

The response is the change that takes
place, after exposure to electromagnetic
radiation (light or x-rays), in the
photosensitive emulsion on the film
 The response of the film to exposures is
manifested as a degree of blackening
produced after chemical processing

9. How is degree of blackening
quantified/measured?
1. Transparency (transmission): when
photographic image is held up for light
for inspection it will be observed that it
made up of many varied area of different
brightness.
Intensity of transmitted light
Transparency = ---------------------------------Intensity of incident light

10. 2. Opacity
reciprocal of transparency is known as
opacity.
Intensity of incident light
Opacity = ---------------------------------Intensity of transmitted light

11. 3.
Optical Density (OD)
is expressed as a number that is actually a logarithm,
using the common base 10.
Photographic density is defined by
D
=
(Log of opacity) = log 10 Io / I
D = density. IO light incident on a film. I light transmitted
by the film

12. How is degree of blackening
quantified/measured?

In Radiography the degree of film
blackening is quantitatively indicated by
the term ‘Optical Density’.

The optical density describes how
much a certain area of the film is opaque
to light incident upon it .

13. Optical Density
The optical density is expressed
quantitatively as,
Optical Density = Log10 Opacity
It is measured by using the ‘Densitometer’
(The densitometer works on the following
principle)

14. Consider the light transmitted through an
area of a film
Incident light
intensity (Ii )
Transmitted light
intensity (It )
Transmittance (Transmission ratio)= It / Ii
Opacity = 1 / Transmittance = Ii / It
Density = Log10 Opacity = Log10 I i / It

15. Densitometer
Uniform light source
and an optical sensor
Calibration control
allows for easy
calibration

16. Range of densities on a film
Ii
100
4
It
Transmit Opacity
tance
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
100
3
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
2
1
0
10000
1000
100
10
1
Density
4
3
2
1
0

17. Sensitometric strip
A film containing number of areas with
different optical densities from white (fully
transparent) to black (fully opaque)

18. How to produce a sensitometric
strip and the characteristic curve?
1.Expose a film to different amounts of
known exposures starting from a minimum
and increasing at a known rate (ratio /
wedge factor) up to a maximum.
2. Process the film
3. Measure the densities
4. Tabulate the result & Study the response
by plotting a curve (density Vs Log relative
exposure

19. Methods of exposing
Time scale method
(using x-ray exposure)
Intensity scale method
i. Using x-ray exposure
ii. Using light exposure

20. Time scale method
The film is exposed to different quantities of
exposures using constant intensity and
variable duration.
(Quantity = Intensity x Time)
Equipment required
X-ray machine
Cassette with film inside
Lead sheets
Processor
Densitometer
Graph paper

21. Procedure (time scale method)
X-ray tube
Constants
kV, mA, FFD
Variable
Time
Loaded
cassette
Areas to
be
exposed
Loaded cassette
Lead sheets

22. Exposure selection
Minimum exposure
Low enough not to produce a measurable
density
Maximum exposure
High enough to produce a density around 3.0
Increment
Wedge factor (Ratio between two exposures)
of 2 is adequate. (2½ can be used to get more
levels)
Alternatively the time steps available in the
machine may be used to get more points on
the graph

23. Intensity scale method 1
Making a single exposure
using
a calibrated step
wedge
X-ray machine
a loaded cassette
(The intensity of x-rays
passing through the
steps are different &
the duration of
exposure is the same)
-ray
X
ure
s
xpo
e

24. Intensity scale method 2
The film is exposed to a series of different
intensities of light for the same duration
using an instrument called the
“Sensitometer”.
The wedge factor is usually 2½
The colour of light should match the
spectral sensitivity of the film

25. Sensitometer
Uses a controlled light
source
– Produces same
amount of light each
time it is triggered

26. Spectral Sensitivity
1
e vi t a e R
l
es n o ps er
This is the term
used to describe
the response of
the film to the
range of
wavelengths
(spectrum of
colours) of light
Monochromatic
film
Orthochro
matic film
0.5
300
400
500 600 700
Wavelength
(nm)

27. OD examples
T
OD
Comment
1.0000
0
(Perfectly clear (does not exist
0.7760
0.11 (Unexposed film (base + fog
0.1000
1
Medium gray
0.0100
2
Dark
0.0010
3
Very dark; requires hot lamp
0.00025 3.6
Maximum OD used in medical
radiography

28. Film obtained
using time
scale method

29. Density

30. Plotting the curve
Area
A
B
C
D
Exposure (Time)
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.08
Relative exposure
1
2
4
8
Log relative
exposure
Density
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.9

31. Plotting the curve
Area
E
F
G
H
I
Exposure (Time) 0.16
0.32
0.64
1.28 2.56
Relative
exposure
16
32
64
128
256
Log relative
exposure
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.1
2.4
Density
1.45
2.1
2.5
2.7
2.9

32. The D Log E Curve
Others names;
– Sensitometric curve
– Characteristic curve
– Hurter and Driffield (H & D) curve
Sensitometry’s roots lie in analysis of
photographic film
Copyright © 2006 by Thomson Delmar
Learning. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

33. Characteristic curve
4
Shoulder
D Max
yti s n e D
3
2
GF = Gross Fog
Straight line
portion
1
GF
Toe
1
2
3
4
Log relative exposure

34. Characteristic curve
3.00
D-Max
Shoulder
2.50
1.50
Straight line portion
1.00
0.50
GF
Toe
Log Relative exposure
3.48
3.35
3.24
3.10
2.88
2.60
2.48
2.30
2.10
1.88
1.70
1.40
1.10
0.88
0.60
0.00
0.00
Density
2.00

35. (Features) Information obtainable
Gross fog (Basic fog)
Threshold
Contrast
Latitude (film latitude & exposure
latitude)
Speed & Sensitivity
Maximum density
Reversal

36. Gross fog (Basic fog) & net density
This is the density of the horizontal part of the
curve at the minimum exposure level
Gross fog = Base Density + Fog
Base Density :- Density produced by the base
material
Fog :- Density produced by the development of
silver halide crystals which have not
received an intentional exposure
Net density = Gross density – Gross fog

37. 4
Characteristic curve (with net density)
Shoulder
yti s n e Dt e N
3
2
Net density = gross density – gross
fog
1
Toe
0
1
2
3
4
Log relative exposure

38. Threshold
The region where the film emulsion begins to
respond to the exposure
Contrast
The rate of change of density for a given change of
log relative exposure
Contrast = ΔD / ΔE
It is given by the slope (gradient) of the straight line
portion of the curve. If it is a true straight line then
the contrast is called Gamma.
Since, in practice, the curve is not an exact straight
line, the average gradient is taken as the contrast.

39. Characteristic curve
3.00
2.50
2.00
Contrast = ΔD/ ΔE
1.50
ΔD
1.00
0.50
2.88
2.60
2.48
2.30
2.10
1.88
1.70
1.40
1.10
0.88
0.60
0.00
0.00
ΔE

40. Average gradient
yi s ne D
t
4
3
B
DY
2
1
DX
A
Average gradient = BC/AC
DY - DX
= ----------log E Y – log E X
C
How to select points A and
B ?
Log EX 1 Log EY 2
3
4
Log relative exposure

41. Point A ? Point B ?
A : DX = 0.25 above Basic fog
B : DY = 2.0 above Basic fog
 The densities from 0.25 to 2.0 is called
the Useful Density range.
 Useful density range is the density range
in which the differences can be identified
by the human eye.
 The densities which represents different
structures on a radiograph should lie
within this range of densities.

42. Contrast
Contrast controls slope of
characteristic curve
Optical
Density
Lower
Contrast
log relative exposure
Higher
Contrast
Optical
Density
log relative exposure

43.  Useful
density range is the range of
densities within which the human
eye can recognize the small
differences
That is the range of net densities
from
0.25 to 2.0

44. Latitude
Latitude is an expression of the tolerance of a
system to extreme conditions of exposure.
It refers to the ability of a film or film-screen
system to record successfully a wide range of
exposure .
(considered in two parts)
Film latitude & Exposure latitude
Film Latitude
The difference between the upper and
lower limits of log relative exposure which
produce densities within the useful range

45. Significance of film latitude
The range of x-ray intensities transmitted
through the body part should lie within the
film latitude, if they are to be viewed as
useful densities on the radiograph.
Any x-ray intensity that falls out side the
film latitude will not reveal any information
& a useful piece of information might be
lost

46. Film latitude & Average gradient
yi s ne D
t
4
3
DY
2
1
DX
B
A
C
Log EX 1 Log EY 2
Film latitude
When Dx = 0.25+BF & Dy = 2.0
+BF
DY - DX
Average gradient = ----------becomes
log E Y – log
EX
1.75
= -----------------3
4 Film latitude
Log relative exposure

47. Exposure latitude
This refers to the freedom of the
radiographer to select slightly different
exposures (to make room for errors) for a
particular examination so that the resulted
densities remains within the useful density
range.
Exposure latitude = film latitude – subject
contrast (log relative exposure range
transmitted from a particular body part)

48. Subject contrast
kV mA Sec FFD
E
B
B
E1
Air
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
E7

49. Transmitted
intensities
E1
Relative
Intensity
Log relative
intensity
E2
E3
E4
E5
E6
RE1 RE2
RE3
RE4
RE5
RE6 RE7
e1
e3
e4
e5
e6
e2
e7
e1
Subject contrast
E7
e7

50. Image contrast
e1
D1 D2
e7
D3
D4 D5
D6
D7

51. Characteristic curve
3.00
Exposure latitude = film latitude – Subject contrast
e1 ≥ X ; e7 ≤ Y
2.50
2.00
1.50
Film latitude
1.00
Subject contrast
Exposure
latitude
0.50
2.88
2.60
2.48
2.30
2.10
1.88
1.70
1.40
Y
1.10
0.88
0.60
0.00
0.00
X

52. Speed & Sensitivity
 Sensitivity refers to the exposure required
by a film or film-screen system to produce
a net density of 1.
 Sensitivity is expressed in miliroentgens
(mR)
 A high sensitive (have low mR value for
sensitivity) or high speed system requires
less exposure than that of a low sensitive
or low speed system.

53. Speed
Numerically the Speed
is proportional to the
reciprocal of the
sensitivity (mR) and
is expressed as
128
Speed = -------------Sensitivity (mR)
Sensitivity
(mR)
1200
0.1
800
0.16
400
0.32
200
0.64
100
1.28
50
2.56
25
5.0
12
10.0

54. yi s ne D
t
4
Comparison of Speeds of two films (filmscreen systems)
A
3
2
B
Speed A > Speed B
1+BF
Speed A α 1/ E SA
Speed B α 1/ E SB
1
Speed A
-------------
BF
1
2
3
Log ESA
Log ESB
=
E SB
------
Speed B
E SA
4
Log relative exposure

55. Speed
Faster film will have a curve closer to y-axis
of graph

56. Speed
Speed controls left-right location of
characteristic curve
Optical
Density
X
Slower
Speed
log relative exposure
Optical
Density
X
log relative exposure
Faster
Speed

57. Speed
Affected by
processing
– Immersion time
– Solution temperature
– Chemical activity

58. Speed

59. Maximum Density (DMax)
The density produced when all the silver
bromide crystals in the emulsion is
exposed and developed
Reversal
This is the region where the density
reduces with the increasing exposure
greater than that produce DMax

60. yi s ne D
t
4
D Max & Reversal
DMax
3
Reversal
2
1
BF
1
2
3
4
Log relative exposure

61. Reversal or Solarization
Once a film has been
exposed to Dmax, it will
begin to lose density
after further exposure
Duplication film has
been solarized

62. Uses of the characteristic curve
Information
Gross fog (Basic fog)
Threshold
Contrast
Latitude (film latitude &
exposure latitude)
Speed & Sensitivity
Maximum density
Reversal
Uses
Selection of films
Assessing processor
performance (Quality
control)
Selection of exposure
factors
Comparison of filmscreen systems
Duplication of
radiographs

63. Summary
Definitions of terms
Methods of producing a sensitometric
strip
Plotting the Characteristic curve
Features of the characteristic curve
The practical applications

64. Thank You