Reward and punishment

KPP6044 Motivation & Self Efficacy
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The use of rewards and reward systems are very common in schools. Teachers frequently
use systems of rewards in order to promote appropriate behaviors and to increase
academic output (Akin-Little & Little, 2009). Many questions remain about the
effectiveness of rewards. Indeed, the important question is no longer whether rewards are
effective or ineffective as it was a decade or so ago (Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Cameron,
2001; Deci, Ryan, and Koestner, 2001). Rather, assuming that teachers will use rewards,
the question now is, how should rewards be used so that they are not harmful over time
(Brophy, 2004; Lepper & Henderlong, 2000)? For whom and under what conditions are
rewards effective? What are the long-term effects of rewards? What conditional aspects
of rewards need to exist in order to increase intrinsic motivation?
Introduced by B.F. Skinner, punishment has a more restrictive and technical definition.
Along with reinforcement it belongs under the Operant Conditioning category. Operant
Conditioning refers to learning with either punishment or reinforcement. It is also
referred to as response-stimulus conditioning. In psychology, punishment is the reduction
of a behavior via application of an adverse stimulus ("positive punishment") or removal
of a pleasant stimulus ("negative punishment"). Extra chores or spanking are examples of
positive punishment, while making an offending student lose recess or play privileges are
examples of negative punishment. The definition requires that punishment is only
determined after the fact by the reduction in behavior; if the offending behavior of the
subject does not decrease then it is not considered punishment. There is some conflation
of punishment and aversive, though an aversive that does not decrease behavior is not
considered punishment in psychology. Punishment is an aversive stimulus that occurs
after some specific response and is intended to suppress that response. Punishment can
be anything that decreases the occurrence of a behavior: physical pain, withdrawal of
attention, loss of tangibles or activities, a reprimand, or even something others would find
rewarding but the particular individual does not like. (Azoulay,1999)

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2.0 TYPES OF MOTIVATION
Two types of motivation:
(i) Intrinsic Motivation
It is motivation that comes from within students and helps them to become curious,
inspired, and engaged (Deci, 1995 )
(ii) Extrinsic Motivation
For many parents and educators, motivation means providing some reward, a prize, a
privilege, or a word of praise.(Kohn, 1999)
3.0 OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY

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Behaviorists believe that rewards reinforce desired behaviors because behavior is a result
of external responses to the environment. Indeed, rewards have been a hallmark of the
operant view of learning. The idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior
is the premise of behaviorism, including Skinner‟s stimulus response theory. Stimulus
response theory presupposes that changes in behavior are the result of an individual's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence, either positive or negative. A behavior that is followed by a reinforcing
stimulus (a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior) has a greater probability of
occurring again in the future. Conversely, a behavior that is no longer followed by a
reinforcing stimulus runs the risk of extinction (Skinner, 1950, 1953, 1954).
4.0 TYPES OF REWARDS
(i) “if-then“ means “If you do A, then you will get B.”
This type of rewards is related to expected rewards. The expected rewards are, as their
name implies, rewards that are assumed to be available, such as receiving a high grade
because one has studied very hard.
(ii) “Now-that” means “Now that you have done A, you will get B.”
This type of rewards refer to unexpected rewards. This rewards are given without notice;
the recipient does not know that their behavior or action will be rewarded.
There are conflicting findings concerning whether or not expected and unexpected
rewards are detrimental to intrinsic motivation and the desire to engage in a task. It
appears that giving an expected reward for an already high interest task may undermine
intrinsic motivation for completing that task.
However, giving a reward for a low interest task or a reward for high performance may
actually increase intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, unexpected rewards may not
negatively affect the decision to return to an interrupted task, whereas an expected reward
may decrease that decision.

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5.0 DO REWARDS INCREASE MOTIVATION?
According to reinforcement theory, rewards serve as rein forcers to increase the
possibilities of desired behaviors. While they appear to be effective, the use of rewards
and incentives in educational settings has generated considerable controversy (Cameron,
Pierce, Banko, & Gear, 2005).
Some researchers argue that once the rewards are no longer available, students‟ intrinsic
motivation is undermined (e.g. Lepper & Greene, 1975; Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973;
Deci, Koestner & Ryan, 1999, 2001).
(Kohn, 1999; Pink, 2009), external rewards may work for some people in some cases, but
for other people in different circumstances, not only might they fail to motivate, they may
serve as disincentives.
Deci (1995) had college students play with a puzzle game called Soma for 30 minutes.
One group was offered a financial reward for solving the puzzles. The second group was
offered no rewards. The purpose was to determine if the rewarded students would play
with the puzzle on their own longer than the non-rewarded students. The results showed
that the rewarded students were far less likely to continue working on the puzzle on their
own than the non rewarded students. As Deci wrote, “Stop the pay, stop the play” .
Kohn (1999) admitted that”
*rewards do work in the short term. Students will perform for the prizes; however, the
result is not really motivation, but compliance.
*rewards are not solutions, but tricks to bring out a desired behavior, and as such, they
cover the problem rather than resolve it.
* Rewards do not motivate students except for increasing their desire to gain more
rewards.

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Others claim that any negative effect associated with the use of rewards is uncommon,
and found only in isolated situations where other factors are also at work to counteract
their effectiveness. According to these findings, rewards can increase not only
performance, but also a student‟s intrinsic motivation when used properly (e.g. Cameron,
2001; Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Pierce, Cameron, Banko, & So, 2003).
There are social-cognitive researchers such as Deci & Ryan, who advocate limiting the
use of rewards in the classroom, given potential harmful long-term outcomes (Deci,
1972b; Deci & Ryan, 1992; Deci, Koestner, and Ryan, 1999a, b). There are the
behaviorists, who suggest that rewards can produce optimal learning outcomes if used
appropriately, and who largely oppose the view presented by the social-cognitive
researchers (Cameron & Pierce, 1994; Eisenberger & Cameron, 1996).
Bandura (1997) suggested that intrinsic motivation can be increased by performance-
contingent rewards because they lead people to believe they are competent. In contrast,
rewards that are given for vaguely set standards or for participating in a task will
undermine intrinsic motivation (Eisenberger et al., 1999a) because the reward is not
linked directly to performance, which in turn will not produce competence. Most
researchers would agree that simply giving rewards without thought as to how they are
delivered and what they are delivered for will undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci &
Ryan, 1985a; Eisenberger et al., 1999a; Witzel & Mercer, 2003). In sum, when rewards
convey task importance and are presented for meeting or exceeding a specific standard,
perceptions of competence can be enhanced and subsequently intrinsic motivation.

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6.0 GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE REWARDS (PRAISE)
Effective Praise Ineffective Praise
1. Is delivered contingently 1. Is delivered randomly or
unsystematically
2. Specifies the particulars of the
accomplishments
2. Is restricted to global positive reaction.
3. Shows spontaneity, variety, and other signs of
credibility; suggests clear attention to the
students accomplishment.
- “you earned the honor of being class leader next
week for accomplishing level 2 of the rubric, your
best work yet.”
3. Show bland uniformity, which suggest a
conditional response made with minimal
attention.
4. Rewards attainment of specified performance
criteria.
- The positive effect were not found when
children were rewarded only for task
participation or task completion.
- When rewards are given only for students
participation, the importance of progress
or improvement is not emphasized.
4. Rewards mere participation, without
consideration of performance process or
outcome.
5. Provide information to the students about their
competence or the value of their accomplishment.
5.Provides no information at all or gives
students information about their status.
6.Orients students towards better appreciation of
their own task –related behaviour and thinking
about problem solving.
6. Orients students toward comparing
themselves with others and thinking about
competing.
7. Use students ‘ own prior accomplishment as the
context for describing present accomplishment
7. Uses accomplishment of peers as the
context for describing students present
accomplishment.
8. Is given in recognition of noteworthy effort or
success at difficult task.
8. Is given without regard to the effort
expand or the meaning of the
accomplishment.
9. Attributes success to effort and ability, implying
that similar successes can be expected in the
future.
9. Attributes success to ability alone or to
external factors such as luck or easy task.

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10. Foster endogenous attributions (students that
they expand effort on the task because they enjoy
the task and /or want to develop task relevant
skills)
Foster exogenous attributions (students
believe that they expand effort on the task
for external reasons- to please the
teacher, win a competition
11. Focuses students ‘ attention on their own task
relevant behavior.
11. Focuses students’ attention on the
teacher as external authority figure who is
manipulating them
12.Foster appreciation of and desirable
attributions about task relevant behavior after the
process is completed
12. Intrudes into the ongoing process,
distracting attention from task relevant
behavior.
7.0 APPLICATION OF REWARDS IN EDUCATION
(1) Is delivered contingently.
Pairing a piece of candy (tangible reward) or verbal praise (intangible reward) with
completing a class assignment may enhance performance of the class assignment and
cause participants to feel competent because they completed the assignment.
(2) Specifies the particulars of the accomplishments.
That is, to be told “You‟re a good test taker.” (the personal attribute is test taking) versus
“You did a good job on this test.” (the performance is a “good job” on the test) can be
detrimental to personality functioning and can decrease interest and performance.
(3) Shows spontaneity, variety, and other signs of credibility; suggests clear attention to
the students accomplishment.
- “you earned the honor of being class leader next week for accomplishing level 2 of the
rubric, your best work yet.”

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(4) Rewards attainment of specified performance criteria.
An intangible reward needs to be linked with performance, and not personal attributes
.The positive effect were not found when children were rewarded only for task
participation or task completion.
(5) Provide information to the students about their competence or the value of their
accomplishment.
By linking rewards to highest performance on a specific task or job, participants viewed
the job as more interesting because performing well was highly valued.
(6) Orients students towards better appreciation of their own task –related behaviour and
thinking about problem solving.
Rewards may increase achievement for simple learning tasks (i.e. spelling tests) versus
achievement of more advanced tasks (i.e. intelligence tests). When rewards are given
only for students participation, the importance of progress or improvement is not
emphasized.
(7) Use students „ own prior accomplishment as the context for describing present
accomplishment.
Individuals will stop performing if they perceive themselves as being undercompensated
with relation to their efforts (input). However, if they feel unjustly overcompensated,
(higher compensation to input ratio), they will continue to perform.
(8) Is given in recognition of noteworthy effort or success at difficult task.
Research has also shown that expected rewards given for engagement in a novel activity
can decrease intrinsic motivation when compared to an unexpected reward given for the
same novel task (Lepper & Greene, 1975). Expected rewards can also decrease task
interest for individuals already showing high interest in the task and can undermine task
performance (Loveland)

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(9) Attributes success to effort and ability, implying that similar successes can be
expected in the future.
Rewards may enhance feelings of competence and when linked to high performance (i.e.
obtaining 4/5 correct answers versus obtaining 2/5 correct answers), they make
individuals feel good about their performance. Furthermore, expected rewards may also
enhance task interest for low interest tasks because the reward calls attention to the task
and may make the task more desirable to individuals who were not previously interested
or motivated to complete it .
(10) Foster endogenous attributions (students that they expand effort on the task because
they enjoy the task and /or want to develop task relevant skills)
In school systems, grading procedures could be viewed as falling under the inequity
category. If the grading is normative (comparing one individual‟s scores to their peers),
only a small amount of students will receive the highest grades and not everyone will
receive high marks due to individual differences. Both intrinsically motivated low and
high performers strive for good grades and subsequently alter their behavior to obtain
these marks (i.e. study more). Although low performers may not always achieve the same
marks as their high performing peers, they still have a chance to get high scores and may
be intrinsically motivated to obtain these. Thus, inequity in grading procedures may not
be detrimental to intrinsic motivation because it causes everyone to strive for high
performance
(11) Focuses students „ attention on their own task relevant behavior.
Reward have also been found to increase the amount of time spent on more difficult tasks
versus easier tasks (Gear, 2008).
(12) Foster appreciation of and desirable attributions about task relevant behavior after
the process is completed.
Performance-contingent rewards are given for a specific level of performance. Rewards
are given for meeting or exceeding some set standard (Ryan et al., 1983). Intrinsic

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motivation can flourish when a reward is presented in such as manner as to convey the
task‟s importance or relevance, or fulfills an individual‟s needs, wants, or desires.
Students were showing greater achievement on the math tasks when given a reward for
completion of the math task (McGinnis et al., 1999).
8.0 GUIDELINES FOR EXTRINSIC REWARDS
1) Sufficient Rewards
Avoid “scarcity of rewards” where only a few students get all of the reward including
low achievers. For example: “students of the month”
2) Rewards for improvement .
When giving rewards, keep the focus on improvement rather than on ability. For
example: rather than always giving awards only to those who make the highest grade,
establish a reward system whereby students are routinely recognize for a ”personal best”
or individual improvement.
3) Getting started
Extrinsic rewards can be used to get children started in an activity where there may not be
much initial interest. If extrinsic rewards can be used to start children reading or playing
an instrument, they may begin to experience new sources of motivation and enjoyment
from the activity itself.
4) Fade out extrinsic rewards
When extrinsic rewards are used, gradually diminish them, shifting the focus to a more
intrinsic one when possible. This often happens when students gain competence in an
area, and this increase ability becomes more satisfying than the rewards.
5) Public rewards

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For example, use of charts reporting students accomplishment. All students who meet the
desired criteria , such as passing a state-required proficiency test, could be given
recognition
6) Combine rewards with other motivational strategies.
Rewards have been combined with other motivational strategies such as goal setting. The
combination of rewards and goal setting provided maximum success for the students
9.0 IMPLICATION OF REWARDS
1) Rewards have a negative impact on intrinsic motivation when they are given
simply for engaging in a task or in an attempt to control the behavior off the person
without consideration of any standard of performance.
2) When the reward received is greater than initially expected, a person is more likely to
view him or herself as performing for the reward
3) When students attribute the task outcome to their improving competency, a reward is
more likely to enhance intrinsic motivation rather than undermine it.
4) When high intrinsic motivation is already present, be cautious about introducing
extrinsic rewards because they may damped the intrinsic motivation

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10.0 TYPES OF PUNISHMENT
There are two types of punishment in operant conditioning:
(i) positive punishment which is an experimenter punishes a response by presenting an
aversive stimulus into the animal's surroundings (a brief electric shock, for example).
(ii) negative punishment which is a valued, appetitive stimulus is removed (as in the
removal of a feeding dish). As with reinforcement, it is not usually necessary to speak
of positive and negative in regard to punishment.

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Punishment is not a mirror effect of reinforcement. In experiments with laboratory animals
and studies with children, punishment decreases the likelihood of a previously reinforced
response only temporarily, and it can produce other "emotional" behavior (wing-flapping in
pigeons, for example) and physiological changes (increased heart rate, for example) that have
no clear equivalents in reinforcement. Punishment is considered by some behavioral
psychologists to be a "primary process" – a completely independent phenomenon of learning,
distinct from reinforcement. Others see it as a category of negative reinforcement, creating a
situation in which any punishment-avoiding behavior (even standing still) is reinforced.
11.0 USING PUNISHMENTS IN SCHOOLS
Gregory S.(2012) through his research on four Chinese schools in the Philippines found
that the most frequently used penalties are giving offenses (major and minor offenses –
equivalent to deduction in the conduct grades), giving consequences or punishments
(constructive punishments such as copying or reciting poems, etc.), detentions (staying
after class), debits (grade deduction), and oral warning.
A research by Andy Miller, Eamon Fergusson and Rachel Simpson(1998) among 49
pupils, 6 teachers and 64 parents in UK found that the effective punishment perceived
by the parents are:
(i) parents informed by their naughty behavior
(ii) being sent to see the head teacher
(iii)teacher explaining what is wrong with their behavior in private.
They also indicated that the effective punishment perceived by the students are:
(i) being stopped from going to the school trip
(ii) parents informed by their naughty behavior
(iii) teacher explaining what is wrong with their behavior in front of the class.
The interview‟s data found that the respondent stated that he was indeed using
punishment in the classroom. He also stated that frequency of using the punishment

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depends on the situation in the classroom. He mentioned that the use of punishment in the
classroom will be charged if his students began to cause problems. About the types of
punishment used by respondent in classroom, he preferred to use reprimands, warning
and a error‟s correction of a test / examination.
From respondent‟s interview, punishment in an academic form was the most better
punishment in motivating students in learning.
" If you want to make sure the punishment can motivate students, I think the punishment
should be in academic‟s form e.g. if a student fails the test, we fine the student to write a
correction for example 10 times."
Respondent also stated that the punishment more applicable to students in schools that
problematic than a good school.
12.0 IS PUNISHMENT EFFECTIVE?
Currently, schools have different penalty policy in placed, but almost all of them have
one common goal which is to motivate students to learn. An effective rewards and
penalty system promotes positive behavior and regular attendance. It is the essential
foundation for a creative learning and teaching environment.
Punishment is most effective when it is presented immediately after a response, it cannot
be escaped, it is as intense as necessary and an alternative and desirable response is
available to the student.( Gage, N.L. & David C. Berliner,1992). John W. Maag in his
article “Rewarded by Punishment: Reflection on the Disuse of Positive Reinforcement in
Schools” found that punishment is an acceptable approach for managing student‟s
behavior because positive reinforcement was ignored and misunderstood because of a
strong cultural ethos that encourages punishment.
Educators nowadays are aware that giving penalties are counterproductive. Punishment
tends to generate anger, defiance, and a desire for revenge. Moreover, it also gives
example to the use of authority rather than reason and encouragement, thus this would

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tend to rupture the important relationship between adult and child (Kohn, 1994). Kohn
also indicate that punishment is the way of manipulating behavior that destroy the
potential for real learning because:
(i) Is a way of trying to alter that child‟s behavior.
(ii) It leads children to feel worse about themselves.
(iii)Spoils the relationship between child and adults
Dr. Amir Hassan Darwi(2009), lists out that punishment like scold in front of other
students can be done if the purpose of that punishment is to give warning to other
students not to repeat the same mistake.
According Gage, N.L. & David C. Berliner,(1992), punishment is a weapon that can be
as risky for the teachers as it is distasteful to the student. The frequent use of punishment
is a symptom of something wrong in teacher‟s approaches and methods in the total school
situation. It is a challenge for teacher to discover and correct the problem and to reduce
the need for punishment.
Baldwin & Baldwin in their book ”Behavior principles in everyday life” stated that
punishment is an ineffective motivational strategy. Punishment generates a number of
worrisome and unintentional “side effects” including negative emotionality(crying,
screaming, feeling afraid).
Skinner(1953) noted that the use of punishment in school can lead to undesirable side
effect such anxiety, anger and negative feelings towards the teacher. The negative
feeling may generalize towards the teacher and subsequently surface during other
activities.
The data from the interview found that respondent stated that the students in his
classroom gives a good response when he punish them which is they will respond in
accordance to the instructions given to them. Respondents also disagreed that
punishments bring a negative impact on student because he feels punishment is need to
make students easily controlled.

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" I don‟t think so because we have to look at the reality of our students. Student
nowadays are very different to the student in the past. Students are now more exposed to
things that are not good. So if the teacher is not firm and does not impose punishment, I
fear that these students will be difficult to control and this will give a lot of problems to
the teachers itself.. "
Respondents also disagreed with the statement that the punishments can manipulate
student‟s behavior. Respondent stated that the punishment given by the teacher is not
intended to manipulate student‟s behavior but to create awareness among them about the
offense committed.
" Students are aware that the punishment meted out to them is the fault of their own ".
13.0 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT(SPANKING)
Ching, Hugo, A. B. (2010), mentioned that legal punishment involves the imposition of
something that is intended to be burdensome or painful, on a supposed offender for a
supposed crime, by a person or body who claims the authority to do so. Punishment
involves the intentional infliction of pain or of something unpleasant on someone who
has committed a breach of rules by someone who is in authority, who has a right to act in
this way. Otherwise, it would be impossible to distinguish 'punishment' from 'revenge'.
According to Dr. Amir Hassan Dawi(2009), physical punishment can be done if only
other punishments like advice, scold and warning are fail. This physical punishment
should be the last punishment to be considered. Dr. Amir Hassan Darwi also discuss
about the rules on execute the physical punishment to students which are :
(i) Teacher cannot be in emotional „s feeling when to punish student psychically.
Punishing students in anger may results teacher did something worse.
(ii) Physical punishment cannot be done in front of other‟s student because it will
decrease student‟s dignity.

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(iii)Physical punishment should meet the requirements. Example the spank cannot be
done three times at once. Physical punishments that exceed the requirement can be
done if parents gave their permission.
(iv)The good physical punishment is when it gave the student to feel pain and conscious
but not harm and have effect on student.
14.0 THE ADVANTAGE OF PUNISHMENT TO STUDENTS
From the interview, respondent agreed with questions which is the need for teachers to
impose punishment in the classroom? Among the purposes of punishment in the
classroom, disciplining students as indicated by the respondents . According to
respondent , teacher cannot be too lenient with students because students will always use
the opportunities to do offense. The second purpose of punishment identified from the
respondents is the control of a class. Respondent gave his opinion that the if there no
punishment imposed in the classroom ,teacher cannot afford to control the class which
will bring to imperfections in learning and teaching‟s process.
" If the class is so noisy or students do not want to do exercises or homework, so there is
no use for teacher to teach in the classroom.”
According to respondent, the teacher must always be firm in the classroom so that
teaching‟s process will be smoothly without interruption.
Between reward and punishment, respondent stated that both are equally important,
especially in facing the students of this new era. Reward be given for enhance the
motivation while punishment imposed for disciplining students.

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15.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, rewards that are informational appear to produce the best outcome for
enhancing intrinsic motivation and performance. Rewards that are expected can also
enhance intrinsic motivation for low interest tasks or high performance. The effects of
rewards on intrinsic motivation can vary greatly depending upon the method of
presentation and delivery.
Punishment can take various forms in classroom discipline programs. Sometimes an
event is presented whenever the student shows an undesired behavior. A teacher may
reprimand a student, for example, each time that the student leaves her seat without
permission. In another form of punishment, the student may temporarily be removed to a
less-reinforcing setting (e.g., by being sent to a time-out room for a 10 minute period of
seclusion) whenever she displays a negative behavior. In a type of punishment known as
response-cost, a student has rewards, tokens, privileges, or other positive reinforces taken
away whenever he or she engages in a problem behavior. An example of response cost is
a student who earns stickers for good classroom conduct having one sticker removed
from her sticker chart for each episode of misbehavior. Teachers sometimes find
punishment to be effective as a classroom behavior management tool, especially in the
short term. Because punishment tends to rapidly stop problem behaviors, the teacher in
turn is positively reinforced for using it.

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REFERENCES
Alderman M.K (2008). Motivation For Achievement: Possibilities For Teaching and Learning.
New York.
Alfie Kohn(1999). Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s,
Praise and Other Bribes. New York
Amir Hasan Dawi(2009). Sekolah dan Masyarakat. Quantum Books: Tanjung Malim.
Anderman E.M. & Anderman L.H.(2010). Classroom Motivation. Pearson Education: New
Jersey.
Azoulay, D. (Spring 1999). Encouragement and Logical Consequences versus Rewards and
Punishment: A Reexamination [Electronic Version]. Journal of Individual Psychology,
55(1), 91-99.
Brandt, Ron(1995). Punished by rewards? A conversation with Alfie Kohn. Educational
Leadership; Sep 1995; 53, 1; ProQuest Research Library pg. 13.
Chen, P. (n.d.). Rewards for reading : Their Effects On Reading Motivation, 1– 9.
Ching, Gregory S.(2012). Looking Into The Issues Of Rewards And Punishment In Students.
International Journal of Research Studies in Psychology 2012 June, Volume 1 Number 2,
29-38
Gage, N.L. & David C. Berliner(1992). Educational Psychology. Houghton Mifflin: Boston.

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Hugo, Adam Bedau (February 19, 2010). "Punishment, Crime and the State". Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved April 1, 2013.
Kelly, S. (2008). What Types of Students‟ Effort Are Rewarded with High Marks? Sociology of
Education, 81(1), 32–52. doi:10.1177/003804070808100102
Kohn, A. (1994). The risk of rewards. Retrieved April 1, 2013, from
http://www.alfiekohn.org/teaching/pdf/The%20Risks%20of%20Rewards.pdf
Maag, J.W.(2001). Rewarded By Punishment: Reflections On The Disuse Of Positive
Reinforcement In Schools. Exceptional Children; Winter 2001; 67, 2; ProQuest Research
Library pg. 173
Matera.D.B. (2012). The Effects Of Rewards and Punishment on Motivation of The Elementary
School Student. Walden University
Miller, A.,Ferguson, Eamonn,S. , Rachel(1998). The Perceived Effectiveness Of Rewards And
Sanctions In Primary. Educational Psychology; March 1998; 18, 1; ProQuest Research
Library pg. 55
Peters, Richard Stanley (1966). Ethics and Education. pp. 267–268. JSTOR 3120772
Radhakrishnan, P., Lam, D., & Ho, G. (2007). Giving University Students Incentives to do
Homework Improves their Performance.
Skinner, B. F. (1938) The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Reward and punishment

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