Classical and operant conditioning are two theories of learning proposed by Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner respectively. Pavlov showed that behaviors can be learned through associating an unconditioned stimulus like food with a neutral stimulus like a bell. Skinner's operant conditioning demonstrated that voluntary behaviors are strengthened through positive reinforcement or weakened through punishment and extinction. Cognitive learning theories proposed by psychologists like Edward Tolman emphasized how mental representations and problem-solving allow for more complex learning than conditioning alone.

1. LEARNING
Prof. Shrinivas V K
Prof. SVK

2. DEFINITIONS
“Learning is a relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a
result of a prior experience”
“Learning has taken place if an
individual behaves, reacts, responds
as a result of experience in a manner
different from the way he formerly
behaved”
“A permanent change in behavior
through education and training,
practice and experience”
Prof. SVK

3. TheoriesofLearning
• Classical conditioning by Ivan Pavlov
• Operant conditioning by B. F. Skinner
• Cognitive learning by Edward Tolman
• Social learning
Prof. SVK

4. Classical Conditioning
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated classical
conditioning. His work provided a basis for later
behaviorists like John Watson and B. F. Skinner.
4Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Sovfoto

5. Classicalconditioning
• Classical conditioning is the association of one
event with another desired event resulting in a
behavior.
• A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
• He tried to relate the dog’s salivation and the
ringing of the bell.
• He conducted an experiment on dogs and
tried to establish a Stimulus Response
connection.
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6. • Unconditioned stimulus (Meat)
• Unconditioned response (Salivation)
• Conditioned/artificial stimulus ( Bell )
• Conditioned response
(Salivation=bell)
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7. Pavlov’sExperiments
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Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However,
the tone (neutral stimulus) does not.

8. Pavlov’sExperiments
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During conditioning, the neutral stimulus
(tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting
in salivation (UR). After conditioning, the
neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus,
CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned
Response, CR)

9. Prof. SVK

10. Crticisism
• It is passive.
• Mostly behaviour is emitted than
elicited.
• It is voluntary not reflexive
Prof. SVK

11. BFSkinner’sOperant
conditioning
• A type of conditioning in which
desired voluntary behaviour leads to
a reward or prevents a punishment.
• Operant behaviour means voluntary
or learned behaviour in contrast to
reflexive or unlearned behaviour.
Prof. SVK

12. Methodstoshapebehaviour
• Positive reinforcement: Following a
response with something pleasant.
• Negative reinforcement: Following a
response by the termination or
withdrawal of something unpleasant.
• Punishment: Causing an unpleasant
condition to eliminate undesirable
behaviour
• Extinction: Eliminating any reinforcement
that is maintaining a behaviour
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13. Sociallearning
• People can learn through observation
and direct experince.
• 4 step model
1) Attentional process
2) Retention process
3) Motor reproduction
4) Reinforcement process
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14. Cognitivelearning
• Not all cases of learning can easily be
captured by classical conditioning
and operant conditioning.
• Learning would be extremely
inefficient if we had to rely
completely on conditioning for all our
learning.
• Human beings can learn efficiently
by observation, taking instruction,
and imitating the behavior of others.
Prof. SVK

15. • “Cognitive learning is defined as the
acquisition of knowledge and skill by
mental or cognitive processes”
• Cognitive processes include creating
mental representations of physical
objects and events, and other forms
of information processing.
• In cognitive learning, the individual
learns by listening, watching,
touching, reading, or experiencing
and then processing and
remembering the information.
Prof. SVK

16. • Using rats in the laboratory, he
showed that they learnt to run
through a complicated maze
towards their goal of food.
• It was observed that rats developed
expectations at every choice points
in the maze.
• Learning happened when the
environmental cues and
expecatations were strengthened
because the cues led to the
expected goals.
Prof. SVK

17. Principlesoflearning
• It is the process of changing the
individual’s behavior by guiding their
learning in systematic steps.
• The four methods of shaping behavior
are-
• 1. Positive reinforcement
• 2. Negative reinforcement
• 3. Punishment
• 4. Extinction
Prof. SVK

18. MeaningofReinforcement:
 Reinforce means to strengthen, and reinforcement
refers to a stimulus which strengthens the
probability of a particular response being
repeated.
 Positive reinforcement.
 Negative reinforcement.
 Reinforcement is anything that increases the
intensity of a response. It can be negative or
positive.
 Commonly used reinforcers in organizations:-
 Appreciating the good work of employees
 Awarding promotions or raises
•
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19. Positivereinforcement
• It is the process of getting something
nice after showing a desired
behavior. This is done to repeat the
same behavior.
• Example of Positive Reinforcement -
• When a manager praises an employee for successfully
completing a task on schedule, this is positive
reinforcement.
• This encourages the employee and increases the possibility
of completing his work on time.
Prof. SVK

20. NegativeReinforcement
• In this, a reward is taken away if an
undesired behavior is displayed.
Example of Negative reinforcement-
• Taking away scholarship from a
student, if he does not perform well in
the examination.
• When a worker is asked to get back to work
when he is noticed talking to his colleagues,
this is negative reinforcement.
Prof. SVK

21. Punishment
1. Punishment is the practice of forcing
something unpleasant or on a person,
usually in response to disobedient or
morally wrong behavior or undesired
behavior.
2. Should be immediate and uniform.
3. Punish in private.
4. Punisher must provide an acceptable
reason to offender
5. Punishment of the wrong behaviour should
be paired, whenever possible, with
reinforcement of the right behaviour.
6. Can have side effects of hate and revenge
Prof. SVK

22. Extinction
• It is removal of any reward
(reinforcement) that is helping to
maintain a particular behavior.
• If a person puts in extra effort but his
work is not being recognized or
rewarded, he will stop doing it.
Prof. SVK

23. SchedulesofReinforcement
• Reinforcement schedules are of two
types-
– Continuous reinforcement schedule
– Intermittent reinforcement schedule
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24. ContinuousReinforcementSchedule
• In this a desired behavior is always
rewarded.
• It is the traditional reinforcement
schedule.
Prof. SVK

25. IntermittentReinforcement
Schedule
• In this schedule, every case of desired
behavior is not rewarded.
• But the frequency of reward is
sufficient to encourage desired
behavior.
Prof. SVK

26. CategoriesofIntermittent
Techniques
• Fixed interval reinforcement schedule –
Rewards are given at fixed time intervals.
E.g. honesty pay
• Variable interval reinforcements – Rewards
are given at time intervals that are not fixed.
• Fixed ratio schedule – Reward is given after
a fixed number of responses. E.g. Piece rate
Generally variable schedules lead to higher performance
than fixed schedules.
Continuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly desired, low
frequency or unstable responses.
Intermittent reinforcers are appropriate for stable or high
frequency responses.
Prof. SVK

27. SpecificOrganizational
Application
1) Using lotteries to reduce absenteeism
• In this method lotteries are used to reduce
absenteeism in organizations.
• This method was used by Continental
Airlines to reward its 40,000 employees for
attendance.
• The company holds a draw two times a
year and gives eight new sports utility
vehicles.
• For this draw employees who have not
taken a single leave during the last six
months are eligible.
• This reduced the company’s absence rate
to a great extent (Robbins 2003).
Prof. SVK

28. 2)Wellpayvs.sickpay
• Organizations that pay for sick leaves face
two times more absenteeism than
organizations who do not pay for sick
leaves.
• One organization in USA implemented a
well pay program.
• It paid bonus to employees who did not
take any leave for a four weak period.
• This program increased organization’s
savings, reduced absenteeism, increased
productivity and improved employee
satisfaction.
• Forbes magazine also used this approach to
cut its health care costs.
Prof. SVK

29. 3)EmployeeDiscipline
• All managers have to deal with problem
behaviors in the organization.
• To counter this, managers may take
disciplinary action like oral warning, written
warning and temporary suspension. But it is
a short term solution and causes side
effects.
• Disciplinary action tells the employees what
not to do but does not teach them what to
do.
• Practically, it is used commonly because it
can give fast results in the short run.
• Most organizations have some kind of
training program.
Prof. SVK

30. Barrierstolearning
 Individual
• low risk taking
• Comfortable with status quo
• Intolerance to handle disturbance
 Teams and groups
• Group resistance
• Narrow approach
 Organizations
• Organisation culture
• Cultural defensiveness
Prof. SVK

31. Thank you……
Prof. SVK