Presentation glucose transporters
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Glucose is the main carbohydrate in blood, circulating at 65-110 mg/100 ml. It is an important fuel for muscles. Glucose enters muscles via GLUT4 glucose transporters. There are several glucose transporters with different properties - GLUT1 transports glucose in most cells, GLUT2 in liver and pancreas, GLUT3 in neurons and testes, and GLUT4 in muscles and fat which is activated by insulin. Insulin promotes glucose uptake in muscles by recruiting more GLUT4 transporters to the membrane from intracellular storage vesicles.
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Glucose Transporters.pptx
Glucose transporters are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose across the plasma membrane, a process known as facilitated diffusion. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla.
Glucose transport
Glucose transport into cells is mediated by glucose transporter (GLUT) proteins. [1] There are five main GLUT transporters that are involved in glucose transport and each has a distinct tissue distribution and function. [2] GLUT transporters use a flip-flop mechanism to transport glucose across the cell membrane according to the concentration gradient. [3] Insulin regulates glucose transport by stimulating the translocation of GLUT4 and GLUT1 transporters from intracellular vesicles to the cell membrane, increasing the influx of glucose into cells.
Gluts transporters
There are various conditions that are related glucose transporters. rach category treated differently and the side effects thus, varies. In this section, glucose 1 transporters and various condition related to it have been discussed.
Glycogen metabolism ppt
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found in the liver and muscles. It consists of glucose monomers linked together by glycosidic bonds to form a branched polymer. Glycogen serves as a readily available source of glucose through the processes of glycogenolysis and glycogenesis. Glycogenolysis involves the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate through the actions of phosphorylase, phosphoglucomutase, and glucose-6-phosphatase. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose-6-phosphate utilizing glycogen synthase and branching enzyme. The activities of these enzymes are regulated by hormonal signals and allosteric effectors to ensure coordinated anabolism and catabol
Glucose Transporters
Glucose transporters (GLUTs) facilitate the uptake of glucose in cells. The main GLUTs are GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, and GLUT5. GLUT1 transports glucose in red blood cells and various tissues. GLUT2 has low affinity and transports glucose in the liver and pancreatic beta cells. GLUT3 transports glucose into brain cells with high affinity. GLUT4 mediates insulin-dependent glucose uptake in muscle and fat cells. GLUT5 transports fructose. SGluT cotransports glucose and sodium from the intestinal and renal lumens into cells.
Glycogen metabolism- revision
Glycogen is a readily available storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and muscle. It is synthesized through glycogenesis, which involves four steps - activation of glucose to UDP-glucose, initiation using the primer glycogenin, elongation by glycogen synthase adding glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds, and branching every 7-10 units via alpha-1,6 bonds by branching enzyme. Glycogen synthesis requires two enzymes - glycogen synthase which elongates the chain and branching enzyme which introduces branches, and continues till sufficient glycogen is synthesized or glucose is no longer available.
13 Biochemistry _ Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Bioc hemistry_ Regulation and integration of Metabolism
The document discusses various topics related to metabolic regulation and integration. It describes how the liver, adipose tissue, muscle, and brain are important organs for fuel metabolism. It also summarizes the roles of insulin and glucagon in regulating metabolism. Insulin promotes anabolic processes like glycogen synthesis and fat storage, while glucagon stimulates catabolic processes like gluconeogenesis to increase blood glucose. The document also provides information on fuel storage in the body and the key roles of glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvate, and acetyl-CoA as junction points in metabolic pathways.
Recommended
Glucose Transporters.pptx
Glucose transporters are a wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose across the plasma membrane, a process known as facilitated diffusion. Because glucose is a vital source of energy for all life, these transporters are present in all phyla.
Glucose transport
Glucose transport into cells is mediated by glucose transporter (GLUT) proteins. [1] There are five main GLUT transporters that are involved in glucose transport and each has a distinct tissue distribution and function. [2] GLUT transporters use a flip-flop mechanism to transport glucose across the cell membrane according to the concentration gradient. [3] Insulin regulates glucose transport by stimulating the translocation of GLUT4 and GLUT1 transporters from intracellular vesicles to the cell membrane, increasing the influx of glucose into cells.
Gluts transporters
There are various conditions that are related glucose transporters. rach category treated differently and the side effects thus, varies. In this section, glucose 1 transporters and various condition related to it have been discussed.
Glycogen metabolism ppt
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose found in the liver and muscles. It consists of glucose monomers linked together by glycosidic bonds to form a branched polymer. Glycogen serves as a readily available source of glucose through the processes of glycogenolysis and glycogenesis. Glycogenolysis involves the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate through the actions of phosphorylase, phosphoglucomutase, and glucose-6-phosphatase. Glycogenesis is the synthesis of glycogen from glucose-6-phosphate utilizing glycogen synthase and branching enzyme. The activities of these enzymes are regulated by hormonal signals and allosteric effectors to ensure coordinated anabolism and catabol
Glucose Transporters
Glucose transporters (GLUTs) facilitate the uptake of glucose in cells. The main GLUTs are GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3, GLUT4, and GLUT5. GLUT1 transports glucose in red blood cells and various tissues. GLUT2 has low affinity and transports glucose in the liver and pancreatic beta cells. GLUT3 transports glucose into brain cells with high affinity. GLUT4 mediates insulin-dependent glucose uptake in muscle and fat cells. GLUT5 transports fructose. SGluT cotransports glucose and sodium from the intestinal and renal lumens into cells.
Glycogen metabolism- revision
Glycogen is a readily available storage form of glucose found mainly in the liver and muscle. It is synthesized through glycogenesis, which involves four steps - activation of glucose to UDP-glucose, initiation using the primer glycogenin, elongation by glycogen synthase adding glucose units via alpha-1,4 glycosidic bonds, and branching every 7-10 units via alpha-1,6 bonds by branching enzyme. Glycogen synthesis requires two enzymes - glycogen synthase which elongates the chain and branching enzyme which introduces branches, and continues till sufficient glycogen is synthesized or glucose is no longer available.
13 Biochemistry _ Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to extract energy. It occurs in 10 steps and involves 2 phases. In the first phase, energy is invested to phosphorylate and cleave glucose. In the second phase, the products are further broken down with a net generation of ATP. Glycolysis converts one glucose into two pyruvate molecules, produces 2 NADH, uses 2 ATP and generates a net of 2 ATP per glucose. This pathway is regulated by controlling the activity of three key enzymes: hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
Bioc hemistry_ Regulation and integration of Metabolism
The document discusses various topics related to metabolic regulation and integration. It describes how the liver, adipose tissue, muscle, and brain are important organs for fuel metabolism. It also summarizes the roles of insulin and glucagon in regulating metabolism. Insulin promotes anabolic processes like glycogen synthesis and fat storage, while glucagon stimulates catabolic processes like gluconeogenesis to increase blood glucose. The document also provides information on fuel storage in the body and the key roles of glucose-6-phosphate, pyruvate, and acetyl-CoA as junction points in metabolic pathways.
GLUT.pptx
- Glucose transporters (GLUTs) facilitate the movement of glucose across cellular membranes into tissues and organs. The main GLUTs are GLUT1-5 which have tissue-specific expression and functions.
- GLUT1 transports glucose into tissues like red blood cells and brain. GLUT2 transports glucose bidirectionally between blood and liver/kidney/pancreas cells. GLUT3 specifically transports glucose into neurons. GLUT4 is responsible for insulin-dependent glucose uptake into adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. GLUT5 transports fructose in the small intestine and testes.
- Insulin signaling stimulates the translocation of intracellular GLUT4 vesicles to the cell surface membrane, increasing glucose uptake into muscles and fat
7 glycogen metabolism
Glycogen metabolism involves glycogenesis (synthesis) and glycogenolysis (breakdown). Glycogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves activation of glucose to UDP-glucose by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, then transfer of glucose units to glycogen by glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen via glycogen phosphorylase and releases glucose-1-phosphate. Both processes are regulated by hormones like insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine that activate or inhibit glycogen synthase and phosphorylase.
Biochemistry- Glucose transporters
Biochemistry
gLUCOSE TRANSPORTERS
sODIUM DEPENDENT AND independent transporters
GluT-1,2,3,4,5
Insulin-dependent GluT-4
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It involves converting substrates like lactate, amino acids, and glycerol into glucose through a series of enzymatic reactions. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis bypass irreversible steps in glycolysis. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like pyruvate carboxylase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase to produce glucose when blood sugar levels fall, such as during periods of fasting.
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with definitions of nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis. For each pathway, it outlines the key reactions and clinical aspects. It also discusses the roles of hormones in regulating carbohydrate metabolism and diseases related to defects in glycogen storage and metabolism. In summary, the document comprehensively reviews carbohydrate nutrition and the major catabolic and anabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism in the human body.
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document presents an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction and outlines the key pathways of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. It then describes how carbohydrates are broken down and the products that are generated in each step. Under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be converted to lactate or enter the Krebs cycle. Each pathway generates ATP or electron carriers. In total, the breakdown of one glucose molecule can generate up to 38 ATPs. Finally, it lists factors that influence which pathways are used such as nutritional status, oxygen availability, and tissue type and provides references.
Insulin
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates fuel metabolism. It has important anabolic effects, promoting the storage and synthesis of glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins. Insulin secretion is stimulated by increases in blood glucose, amino acids, and gastrointestinal hormones after eating. It works to promote glucose uptake and storage in liver, muscle and fat tissues, while inhibiting glucose production and release. Insulin also increases lipid synthesis and inhibits lipid breakdown to regulate lipid metabolism.
Glycogen metabolism s
Glycogen is the storage form of Glucose which maintain the blood glucose level under various condition. Glycogen Metabolism is the important pathway of carbohydrate metabolism which gives the information about the glycogen synthesis (Glycogenesis), Glycogen breakdown (Glucogenolysis). Glycogen metabolism also gives the information how this pathway is regulated. Their are various diseases which are associated with this metabolism, commonly known as Glycogen storage diseases.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is the major storage carbohydrate in animals and is stored primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose, which takes place in the cytoplasm of liver and muscle cells. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, and is regulated by hormones like glucagon and insulin to control blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrate
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It states that carbohydrates in the diet are primarily complex polysaccharides that are broken down by enzymes into monosaccharides in the gastrointestinal tract. The breakdown process begins in the mouth with salivary amylase and continues in the pancreas with pancreatic amylase and in the small intestine with enzymes that break down disaccharides into monosaccharides. Only monosaccharides can be absorbed into the intestinal cells, primarily through co-transport with sodium ions. The monosaccharides are then released into the bloodstream through facilitated diffusion transporters.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose residues that serves as a storage form of glucose. It is composed mainly of α-1,4 glycosidic linkages with branches every tenth residue by α-1,6 linkages. Glycogen is found primarily in liver and muscle cells bound in granules and provides a readily available source of glucose through breakdown. Glycogen synthesis utilizes UDP-glucose and glycogenin to initiate polymer formation, while breakdown is catalyzed by phosphorylase releasing glucose-1-phosphate and other enzymes are needed to further process the glucose for energy production.
Regulation of glycogen metabolism
The document summarizes the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Key points include:
- Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are reciprocally regulated through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase enzymes by hormones like insulin and glucagon.
- Insulin promotes glycogenesis by stimulating dephosphorylation while glucagon promotes glycogenolysis by stimulating phosphorylation via the cAMP pathway.
- Regulation allows the storage of glucose as glycogen when blood glucose is high and the release of glucose from glycogen when blood glucose is low to maintain homeostasis.
glycogenesis and glycogenolysis
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Diabetes and Glucose Metabolism
This document provides an overview of diabetes mellitus and glucose metabolism. It describes normal glucose metabolism and the pathophysiology of Type I and Type II diabetes. Type I diabetes results from a lack of insulin production, while Type II involves insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. The document discusses insulin therapy and medications for controlling blood glucose levels, as well as complications, management during pregnancy, and principles of patient education.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It occurs primarily in the liver and some tissues during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake to ensure glucose availability. Key reactions include the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate to ultimately form new glucose molecules from these precursors.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and pyruvate. It mainly occurs in the liver and kidney cytosol. The key steps involve converting pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and overcoming the regulation of two irreversible glycolysis reactions through four unique gluconeogenic enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon that control the activity of the rate-limiting enzymes: glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and pyruvate carboxylase.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Molecular basis of diabetes
This document discusses the molecular basis of diabetes. It begins by outlining worldwide trends showing increasing prevalence of diabetes. It then describes the main types of diabetes - type 1 resulting from autoimmune destruction of beta cells and type 2 from insulin resistance and relative beta cell dysfunction. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to both types. Later sections discuss specific genes involved like those coding for insulin, insulin receptor, and genes associated with maturity onset diabetes of young (MODY). The document outlines in detail the molecular mechanisms and genetic factors involved in various forms of diabetes.
SGLT2 Inhibitors (Gliflozins): A New Class of Drugs to treat Type 2 Diabetes:
Sodium-Glucose Linked Transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors such as Dapagliflozin (Farxiga), Canagliflozin (Invokana) and Empagliflozin (Jardiance) are a new class of oral drugs available to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus (Type 2 DM).
Passive transporters in cell membrane
Passive transporters like glucose transporter 2 and aquaporins are transmembrane proteins that catalyze the passive movement of molecules like glucose and water across cell membranes. Glucose transporter 2 enables passive glucose movement between the liver and blood while aquaporins regulate water flow by forming pores that selectively conduct water molecules into and out of cells.
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GLUT.pptx
- Glucose transporters (GLUTs) facilitate the movement of glucose across cellular membranes into tissues and organs. The main GLUTs are GLUT1-5 which have tissue-specific expression and functions.
- GLUT1 transports glucose into tissues like red blood cells and brain. GLUT2 transports glucose bidirectionally between blood and liver/kidney/pancreas cells. GLUT3 specifically transports glucose into neurons. GLUT4 is responsible for insulin-dependent glucose uptake into adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. GLUT5 transports fructose in the small intestine and testes.
- Insulin signaling stimulates the translocation of intracellular GLUT4 vesicles to the cell surface membrane, increasing glucose uptake into muscles and fat
7 glycogen metabolism
Glycogen metabolism involves glycogenesis (synthesis) and glycogenolysis (breakdown). Glycogenesis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves activation of glucose to UDP-glucose by UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, then transfer of glucose units to glycogen by glycogen synthase. Glycogenolysis breaks down glycogen via glycogen phosphorylase and releases glucose-1-phosphate. Both processes are regulated by hormones like insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine that activate or inhibit glycogen synthase and phosphorylase.
Biochemistry- Glucose transporters
Biochemistry
gLUCOSE TRANSPORTERS
sODIUM DEPENDENT AND independent transporters
GluT-1,2,3,4,5
Insulin-dependent GluT-4
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the process by which glucose is produced from non-carbohydrate precursors in the liver and kidneys. It involves converting substrates like lactate, amino acids, and glycerol into glucose through a series of enzymatic reactions. Key enzymes in gluconeogenesis bypass irreversible steps in glycolysis. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like pyruvate carboxylase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase to produce glucose when blood sugar levels fall, such as during periods of fasting.
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document provides an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with definitions of nutrition and carbohydrates, discussing the classification and functions of carbohydrates. It then describes the major pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism, including glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis, and glycogenolysis. For each pathway, it outlines the key reactions and clinical aspects. It also discusses the roles of hormones in regulating carbohydrate metabolism and diseases related to defects in glycogen storage and metabolism. In summary, the document comprehensively reviews carbohydrate nutrition and the major catabolic and anabolic pathways involved in carbohydrate metabolism in the human body.
Carbohydrate metabolism
This document presents an overview of carbohydrate metabolism. It begins with an introduction and outlines the key pathways of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. It then describes how carbohydrates are broken down and the products that are generated in each step. Under aerobic and anaerobic conditions, pyruvate can be converted to lactate or enter the Krebs cycle. Each pathway generates ATP or electron carriers. In total, the breakdown of one glucose molecule can generate up to 38 ATPs. Finally, it lists factors that influence which pathways are used such as nutritional status, oxygen availability, and tissue type and provides references.
Insulin
Insulin is a polypeptide hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas that regulates fuel metabolism. It has important anabolic effects, promoting the storage and synthesis of glycogen, triglycerides, and proteins. Insulin secretion is stimulated by increases in blood glucose, amino acids, and gastrointestinal hormones after eating. It works to promote glucose uptake and storage in liver, muscle and fat tissues, while inhibiting glucose production and release. Insulin also increases lipid synthesis and inhibits lipid breakdown to regulate lipid metabolism.
Glycogen metabolism s
Glycogen is the storage form of Glucose which maintain the blood glucose level under various condition. Glycogen Metabolism is the important pathway of carbohydrate metabolism which gives the information about the glycogen synthesis (Glycogenesis), Glycogen breakdown (Glucogenolysis). Glycogen metabolism also gives the information how this pathway is regulated. Their are various diseases which are associated with this metabolism, commonly known as Glycogen storage diseases.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is the major storage carbohydrate in animals and is stored primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle. Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose, which takes place in the cytoplasm of liver and muscle cells. Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, and is regulated by hormones like glucagon and insulin to control blood glucose levels. Deficiencies in enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism can cause glycogen storage diseases.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrate
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It states that carbohydrates in the diet are primarily complex polysaccharides that are broken down by enzymes into monosaccharides in the gastrointestinal tract. The breakdown process begins in the mouth with salivary amylase and continues in the pancreas with pancreatic amylase and in the small intestine with enzymes that break down disaccharides into monosaccharides. Only monosaccharides can be absorbed into the intestinal cells, primarily through co-transport with sodium ions. The monosaccharides are then released into the bloodstream through facilitated diffusion transporters.
Glycogen metabolism
Glycogen is a branched polymer of glucose residues that serves as a storage form of glucose. It is composed mainly of α-1,4 glycosidic linkages with branches every tenth residue by α-1,6 linkages. Glycogen is found primarily in liver and muscle cells bound in granules and provides a readily available source of glucose through breakdown. Glycogen synthesis utilizes UDP-glucose and glycogenin to initiate polymer formation, while breakdown is catalyzed by phosphorylase releasing glucose-1-phosphate and other enzymes are needed to further process the glucose for energy production.
Regulation of glycogen metabolism
The document summarizes the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Key points include:
- Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) and breakdown (glycogenolysis) are reciprocally regulated through phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase enzymes by hormones like insulin and glucagon.
- Insulin promotes glycogenesis by stimulating dephosphorylation while glucagon promotes glycogenolysis by stimulating phosphorylation via the cAMP pathway.
- Regulation allows the storage of glucose as glycogen when blood glucose is high and the release of glucose from glycogen when blood glucose is low to maintain homeostasis.
glycogenesis and glycogenolysis
This powerpoint gives detailed description and clear view about Glycogenesis and glycogenolysis . these two metabolic actions are very important for regulating blood glucose levels. it also explains about the glycogen storage
Diabetes and Glucose Metabolism
This document provides an overview of diabetes mellitus and glucose metabolism. It describes normal glucose metabolism and the pathophysiology of Type I and Type II diabetes. Type I diabetes results from a lack of insulin production, while Type II involves insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. The document discusses insulin therapy and medications for controlling blood glucose levels, as well as complications, management during pregnancy, and principles of patient education.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources like amino acids, lactate, glycerol, and propionate. It occurs primarily in the liver and some tissues during periods of fasting or low carbohydrate intake to ensure glucose availability. Key reactions include the conversion of pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate to ultimately form new glucose molecules from these precursors.
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors like lactate, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids, and pyruvate. It mainly occurs in the liver and kidney cytosol. The key steps involve converting pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate and overcoming the regulation of two irreversible glycolysis reactions through four unique gluconeogenic enzymes. Gluconeogenesis is regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon that control the activity of the rate-limiting enzymes: glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, and pyruvate carboxylase.
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis
Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis is controlled by enzymes and hormones. Key enzymes in glycolysis like phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase are regulated by allosteric effectors like ATP, AMP, and citrate to control the pathway. The opposing pathway of gluconeogenesis is regulated by enzymes like fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and pyruvate carboxylase which have opposite regulation to their glycolytic counterparts. Hormones like insulin promote glycolysis while glucagon stimulates gluconeogenesis to regulate blood glucose levels.
Metabolism of Carbohydrates
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM
Glycogen is the storage form of carbohydrates in the human body, primarily in the liver and muscle. The liver stores glycogen to provide glucose to maintain blood sugar levels during periods of starvation. Muscle stores glycogen to act as a fuel reserve for muscle contraction, becoming depleted during prolonged exercise.
Molecular basis of diabetes
This document discusses the molecular basis of diabetes. It begins by outlining worldwide trends showing increasing prevalence of diabetes. It then describes the main types of diabetes - type 1 resulting from autoimmune destruction of beta cells and type 2 from insulin resistance and relative beta cell dysfunction. Genetic and environmental factors contribute to both types. Later sections discuss specific genes involved like those coding for insulin, insulin receptor, and genes associated with maturity onset diabetes of young (MODY). The document outlines in detail the molecular mechanisms and genetic factors involved in various forms of diabetes.
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Passive transporters in cell membrane
Passive transporters like glucose transporter 2 and aquaporins are transmembrane proteins that catalyze the passive movement of molecules like glucose and water across cell membranes. Glucose transporter 2 enables passive glucose movement between the liver and blood while aquaporins regulate water flow by forming pores that selectively conduct water molecules into and out of cells.
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The document discusses insulin, its actions, receptors, and regulation. It states that insulin's main sites of action are the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue. Insulin stimulates glycogenesis, lipogenesis, and protein synthesis while inhibiting glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and protein breakdown. Insulin receptors are present on most cells, with high concentrations in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue. GLUT4 is the glucose transporter stimulated by insulin in muscle and fat tissue to increase glucose uptake.
Glut1 Abstract
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This document provides an overview of cell membranes and transport systems. It begins by defining the cell membrane and outlining its key functions, including maintaining cell integrity, selective permeability, and transport. It then describes the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane's structure, which is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded and peripheral proteins. Various types of membrane proteins and their functions are also discussed. The document focuses on different mechanisms of transport across the membrane, including simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport (primary and secondary), ion channels, and transporter proteins. Specific transport proteins like glucose transporters and ion pumps/channels are highlighted as examples.
Transport across the memebrane
This document summarizes various mechanisms of transport across cell membranes. It discusses passive transport mechanisms like diffusion and facilitated diffusion via transport proteins. Active transport mechanisms powered by ATP hydrolysis are also described, including primary active transport directly powered by ATP and secondary active transport using ion gradients. Specific transport proteins for ions like sodium, potassium, and water are detailed. The document also covers transport of larger molecules via endocytosis and exocytosis, and defines different types of endocytosis.
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This document discusses sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, a new class of drugs for treating type 2 diabetes. SGLT2 inhibitors work by blocking glucose reabsorption in the kidney, increasing urinary glucose excretion in a glucose-dependent manner. Three SGLT2 inhibitors have been approved by the FDA - canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin. SGLT2 inhibitors offer advantages over other anti-diabetic drugs in that they are non-insulin dependent and can be used throughout the course of diabetes. However, long-term safety studies are still needed to fully assess their risk-benefit profile.
bd
Membranes contain lipids and cholesterol that allow for lateral movement and flexibility. Membrane proteins such as G-protein coupled receptors and transporters control the flow of substances across membranes. G-protein receptors undergo conformational changes upon binding extracellular stimuli, activating intracellular G-proteins and downstream responses. Transporters use passive, active primary and secondary mechanisms to move molecules like glucose and ions across membranes according to concentration gradients.
Animal phys chapter 5
This document discusses various mechanisms of transport in animal physiology, including:
1) Passive transport mechanisms like simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion, as well as active transport mechanisms.
2) The concepts of equilibrium, passive transport which moves with equilibrium, and active transport which moves against equilibrium.
3) Specific passive transport mechanisms like simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion through ion channels, and the factors that determine permeability.
4) How concentration gradients, electrical gradients, and electrochemical equilibrium interact to drive ion transport across membranes.
Carrier mediated drug transport
Carrier mediated drug transport involves drug molecules binding to carrier proteins in cell membranes to be shuttled across. There are two main types - active transport, which uses energy like ATP hydrolysis, and includes primary active transporters like ABC transporters and P-type ATPases like Na+/K+ ATPase; and secondary active transport which uses the gradient of one solute to transport another, like symporters and antiporters. Drugs can also be transported within cells via vesicular transport into intracellular vesicles for release. Key transporters involved in intestinal drug absorption include amino acid, peptide, glucose and bile acid transporters as well as P-glycoprotein efflux pumps.
Animal phys chapter 5 part 2
This document summarizes different types of transport mechanisms in animal cells. It describes passive transport mechanisms like facilitated diffusion that move solutes down their electrochemical gradient. It also describes active transport mechanisms that use energy (ATP) to move solutes against their gradient, including primary active transport via ATPases and secondary active transport using solute gradients. It discusses the coupling of solute transport and defines terms like cotransport and countertransport. Finally, it covers colligative properties of solutions like osmotic pressure and freezing point depression that depend on the number of dissolved particles.
Active transpot
Active transport moves materials against a concentration or electrochemical gradient and requires energy in the form of ATP. There are two main types: primary active transport which directly utilizes ATP hydrolysis to transport ions via pumps like the Na-K ATPase pump, and secondary active transport which utilizes the gradient established by primary transport to move another substance like symporters and antiporters. Primary transporters include P-type ATPases, V-type ATPases, and F-type ATPases which transport ions like calcium, protons, and help generate mitochondrial membrane potential. Secondary transporters couple the movement of one solute to the gradient of another like the Na-glucose symporter or the Na-Ca exchanger. Active transport is
Glucose receptors1
There are 13 glucose transporter proteins (GLUTs) that transport glucose across cell membranes. They are divided into 3 classes. Class I includes GLUT1-4, the most well studied of which are GLUT1, GLUT2, GLUT3 and GLUT4. GLUT1 transports glucose across the blood-brain barrier. GLUT2 acts as a bidirectional transporter in the liver and pancreas. GLUT3 transports glucose into neurons. GLUT4 is the insulin-regulated transporter that transports glucose into muscle and fat cells for storage. Defects in these transporters can lead to diseases like diabetes.
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrates
This document provides information about the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates and their clinical significance. It discusses how carbohydrates are digested by amylases in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. Disaccharides are further broken down by disaccharidases in the small intestine. The monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose are then absorbed into the bloodstream, primarily through sodium-dependent and sodium-independent glucose transporters. Clinical conditions like lactose intolerance result from deficiencies in disaccharidases like lactase. Overall, the document outlines the multi-step process of carbohydrate digestion and absorption and its implications for health.
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Presentation glucose transporters
- 1. Introduction Glucose Glucose is the most common carbohydrate .Glucose is called blood sugar as it circulates in the blood at a concentration of 65-110 mg/100 ml of blood. Glucose is an important fuel for contracting muscle, and normal glucose metabolism is vital for health. Glucose enters the muscle cell via facilitated diffusion through the GLUT4 glucose.
- 3. Glucose Transporters GLUT 1 Most cells High capacity, relatively low Km GLUT2 Liver, beta cells, hypothalamus High capacity but low affinity (high Km GLUT3 Neurons, placenta, testes Low Km (1mM) and high capacity GLUT4 Skeletal and cardiac muscle, fat Activated by insulin. Km 5mM GLUT5 Mucosal surface in small intestine, sperm Primarily fructose carrier in intestine
- 4. GLUT 1 Glut1 catalyzes the rate-limiting step in supplying cells of the central nervous system with glucose, an essential fuel for these cells. The ability to acutely regulate Glut1 activity might be a very useful strategy to counter the effect of strokes due to arterial blockage as well as the damage that occurs to cardiomyocytes during cardiac infarction.
- 5. GLUT 2 Glut2 is required for the function of glucose sensors present in the hepatoportal vein area and in the central nervous system. These sensors appear to control glucagon secretion, feeding behavior, insulin secretion, and peripheral tissue glucose uptake.
- 6. GLUT 3 They don’t need insulin to transport glucose Always present in the plasma membrane at their sites of action for facilitated diffusion. In the liver ,insulin facilitate transport of glucose in a different way through increase conversion of glucose to glucose 6- phosphate.
- 7. GLUT 4 Insulin dependent cells Found in resting muscles and adipose tissue. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by transporter recruitment. Exposure to increased amount of insulin decreases insulin receptors, while Exposure to decreased amount of insulin increases insulin receptors
- 8. References 1.↵Abbott MJ, Bogachus LD, Turcotte LP. AMPKα2 deficiency uncovers time- dependency in the regulation of contraction-induced palmitate and glucose uptake in mouse muscle. 2.↵Abbott MJ, Edelman AM, Turcotte LP. CaMKK is an upstream signal of AMP- activated protein kinase in regulation of substrate metabolism in contracting skeletal muscle. 3.↵Ahlborg G, Björkman O. Carbohydrate utilization by exercising muscle following pre- exercise glucose ingestion.