Chemotherapy describes different types of chemotherapy agents including antibiotics, antifungals, and antineoplastics. It discusses penicillin antibiotics in depth, describing their mechanisms of action, classifications as narrow or broad spectrum, examples of each type, and mechanisms of bacterial resistance. Key points covered include how penicillins work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, classifications such as aminopenicillins and antipseudomonal penicillins, and common combinations with beta-lactamase inhibitors.
Pharmacology of Penicllins (Beta lactam antibiotics), description of their mechanism of action, mechanism of resistance, classification, indications and adverse effects
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
Pharmacology of Penicllins (Beta lactam antibiotics), description of their mechanism of action, mechanism of resistance, classification, indications and adverse effects
Tetracyclines slide contains full information about uses, adverse effect, marketed preparation, precaution, route of drug administration, antimicrobial spectrum, mechanism of action, pharmacokineticks and pharmacodynamics of tetracyclines. This slide is very helpful for pharmacy and pharmacology student for the study about tetracyclines.
Broad spectrum antibiotics chloramphenicol, anaerobic,soil bacteria. Description includes Physicochemical Properties,Mechanism of action-50S ribosome ,Inhibits Bacterial protein synthesis,Resistance,Interactions,Indications of chloramphenicol-Pyogenic meningitis.
Anaerobic infections.
Intraocular infections.
Enteric fever
Drug of choice in some conditions.
Urinary tract infections
Topically In conjunctivitis & external ear Infections. Snehal chakorkar
Broad spectrum antibiotics chloramphenicol, anaerobic,soil bacteria. Description includes Physicochemical Properties,Mechanism of action-50S ribosome ,Inhibits Bacterial protein synthesis,Resistance,Interactions,Indications of chloramphenicol-Pyogenic meningitis.
Anaerobic infections.
Intraocular infections.
Enteric fever
Drug of choice in some conditions.
Urinary tract infections
Topically In conjunctivitis & external ear Infections. Snehal chakorkar
Alexander Fleming
Microbes make antibiotics
Extracted from Penicillin Notatum
ORIGIN: moldy culture plate
DRUG: Penicillin (1928)
NOBEL: 1945
1.According to source: Antibiotic isolate from 3 type of microbs
From Fungi: Penicillin From Penicillin Notatum .
From Actinomycetes: Streptomycin From
Streptomyces Griseus
From Bacteria: Bacitracin From Bacillus Subtilis
Inhibitors Of Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis:Penicillin , Cephalosporine, Bacitaeacin,Cycloserine
2. Inhibitors Of Protien Synthesis: Aminogycoside,Tertacycline, Chloramphenicol,
Macrolides, Lincosamide
3. Inhibitors Of Bacterial Cell Membrane Function Polymyxins, Nystatin, Amphotericine B.
4. Inhibitors Of Nucleic Acid Metabolism: Grisofulvine, Actinomycin
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
2. Chemotherapy
Use of chemical agents (natural/synthetic) to destroy or
inhibit the growth of infective agents &/or cancerous cells
Antibiotics: s/ces produced by µorganisms to suppress
the growth & replication or kill other µorganisms
N.B.: now antibiotics are synthesized in the laboratory
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 2
6. Use of Anti-infective Agents
✍ Prophylactic therapy
✍ Empiric therapy
✍ Definitive therapy: identification of pathogen & sensitivity
test
☞Goal: selective toxicity
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 6
7. Antibacterial Agents: ABX
☞ Can be:
Narrow spectrum: INH, Cloxacillin, Naldixic acid, Pen-G
Broad spectrum: CAPH, TTCs, Rifamycins, FQs
Bactericidal:
Penicillin, cephalosporins, vancomycin, FQs, aminoglycosides,
metronidazole
✍ MBC: the lowest concentration of ABX reduces the viability of
the initial bacterium inoculum by ≥99.9%
✍ Can be determined from broth dilution MIC
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 7
8. Bacteriostatic:
TTCs, macrolides, amphenicols, lincosamides,
Aminocyclitoles, sulphonamides
✍ Never confuse these terms with potency levels of the drugs or
efficacy: narrow are weak, broad are strong
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 8
11. Drug resistance: unresponsiveness of µ-organism to
antimicrobial agents
Can be innate/acquired
☞ Origin of Drug Resistance
Chromosomal mutation & selection: vertical
Acquisition of chromosomal or extra chromosomal
material/horizontal/
Conjugation: sexual reproduction
Transduction: phages
Transformation: taking genetic material from env’t or dead
bacteriaChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 11
13. Delaying the emergence of resistance
✍ Antimicrobials should be employed only when actually needed
✍ Narrow agents should be employed whenever possible
✍ Newer antibiotics should be reserved
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 13
14. Systematic Approach for Selection of Antimicrobials
✍ Confirm the presence of infection
☞Careful history & physical examination
☞Signs and symptoms
☞Predisposing factors
✍ Identification of the pathogen
☞Collection of infected material
☞Stains, serology, culture and sensitivity
✍ Host & Drug factors
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 14
15. Patient specific considerations
Age: causative agents, contraindication
Disruption of host defenses(immunity):
Compromised → cidal
Site of infection
History of recent antimicrobial use
Antimicrobial allergies
Renal and/or hepatic function
Concomitant administration of other medications
Pregnant & nursing women and compliance
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 15
16. Drug-specific considerations
Spectrum of activity
Effects on nontargeted microbial flora
Appropriate dose
Pharmacokinetic & Pharmacodynamic properties
Adverse-effect & drug-interaction profile
Cost
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 16
17. Antimicrobial drug combination
Indication
Severe infection of unknown etiology
Mixed infection
Prevention of resistance
Decreased toxicity
Enhanced action: penicillin + aminoglycoside = synergism
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 17
18. Disadvantages of antimicrobial combination
Increase risk of allergy
Antagonism of antimicrobial effect: TTC + penicillin
Increase risk of super infection
Increased cost
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 18
22. The penicillin nucleus, 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA),
consists of 3 components:
A thiazolidine ring: five-member
The β-lactam ring & a side chain
Cephalosporin nucleus, 7-aminocephalosporanic acid (7-ACA)
contains:
A six-member dihydrothiazide ring,
β-lactam ring & a side chain
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 22
23. PENICILLINS
MOA:
Bacterial cell wall is cross-linked polymer of polysaccharides &
pentapeptides
Irreversibly acetylate membrane-binding proteins; PBPs or
transpeptidases/transamidases → inhibit transpeptidation
reactions involved in the cross-linking
β-lactam ring structurally mimics the D-alanine-D-alanine
portion of the peptidoglycan: suicide substrates of PBPs
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 23
24. β-lactam ABX are known to bind & inhibit inhibitors of
autolysins → activation of autolysins: destruction of the
existing cell wall
✍ For maximum effectiveness, they require actively proliferating
microorganisms
✍ Little or no effect on bacteria that are not growing & dividing
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 24
27. NARROW SPECTRUM PENICILLINS
Natural Penicillins: Penicillin G, Pen.V
Active against:
G+ve cocci & bacilli: except penicillinase producing µbes
G-ve cocci: N.menigitidis, N.gonorrhea
Which have slightly larger porins
G-ve bacilli: have narrow porins, not effective
Spirochetes: T.pallidum, Borrelia, Leptospira
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 27
28. Therapeutic uses
Drug of choice for G+ve cocci;
Pneumonia or meningitis by Streptococcus pneumonia
Pharyngitis by Streptococcus pyogenes
Infective endocarditis by Streptococcus viridians
Infection caused by G+ve bacilli:
Gangrene by Cl. perfringes
Tetanus by Cl. tetani
Anthrax by B. anthracis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 28
29. Therapeutic uses…
First choice for meningitis by N. meningitids
Drug of choice for the treatment of syphilis
Prophylactic applications;
Syphilis in sexual partners
Benzathine pen.G monthly for life in recurrent rheumatic fever
Bacterial endocarditis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 29
30. Pharmacokinetics
Pen.-G is available as salts: Na+, K+, Procaine, Benzathine
Pen.-G: orally ineffective due to the acid
Procaine & Benzathine salts are intermediate & long acting
respectively
Both absorbed from the muscle slowly & referred to as
repository forms of Pen G
Distributes well to most tissues; inflammation distribution
into CSF, joints & eye
Penicillin is eliminated by tubular secretion [90%].
Excretion delayed by probenecidChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 30
31. PHENOXYMETHYL PENICILLIN: PENICILLIN-V
Acid stable: given orally
Used in streptococcal pharyngitis, prophylaxis of rheumatic
fever; GABHS
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 31
32. VERY NARROW SPECTRUM: -LACTAMASE RESISTANT
Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin, Oxacillin, Methicillin, Nafcillin
Also called anti-staphylococcal penicillins
They have bulky side chains that protect the -lactam ring
Can’t get access to G-ve due to bulky size: drawback
Use: in S.aureus & Staph.epidermdis infections
Emergence of staphylococcal strains (MRSA): Vancomycin
VRSA: FQs, Linezolid
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 32
33. Methicillin
Acid labile; allergic reaction; severe interstitial nephritis
Only for drug sensitivity testing: nephrotoxicity
Nafcillin
Erratic & incomplete absorption from PO, so; IM or IV
S/E: Neutropenia, Nephritis (less severe)
Isoxazolyl Penicillins: Oxacillin, Cloxacillin, Dicloxacillin
Acid stable; orally & parenterally administered
Absorption affected by food
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 33
34. BROAD SPECTRUM
AMINOPENICILLINS
Ampicillin, Amoxicillin, Bacampicillin, Pivampicillin
Antimicrobial spectrum as penicillin G; plus G-ve bacilli:
They can enter via porins
Spectrum: HELPS to clear enterococci (G-ve)
Acid stable: can be administered PO
Ineffective against -lactamase producing bacteria
Need to be combined with -lactamase inhibitors
Can’t cover P.aeruginosa: has tight/few porins
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 34
35. Therapeutic uses
Ampicillin: can be given PO & parenterally
Meningitis: L.monocytogenes; with 3rd gen Cephalosporin
Pneumonia (G-ve) with gentamycin
Hepatic encephalopathy: reducing NH3 production
Especially in azotemic patients, since neomycin is not safe
Bile (biliary tract infection)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 35
36. Amoxicillin:
Pharyngitis, otitis media, tonsillitis, bronchitis, CAP,
sinusitis
UTI: cystitis, pyelonephritis
PUD (H. pylori): triple/dual therapy
Severe dental abscess with spreading cellulitis
Anthrax: postexposure inhalational prophylaxis
IE prophylaxis: 2 g PO 30-60’ before dental procedure
Lyme disease (off-label)
Chlamydial infection in pregnant: off-labelChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 36
37. Amoxicillin
Oral absorption is better than ampicillin: food doesn’t affect
Incidence of diarrhea is less than ampicillin
Less active against shigella
Bacampicillin: prodrug of ampicillin
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 37
38. ANTIPSEUDUOMONAL PENICILLINS
Carboxypenicillins: Carbenicillin, Ticarcillin
Carbenicillin
Active against p.aeruginosa & indole positive proteus
Neither penicillinase nor acid resistant: very small R-chain
Carbenicillin Indanyl Sodium: the only PO
Indanyl ester of carbenicillin: acid stable (PO)
After absorption, rapidly converted to carbenicillin by
hydrolysis of the ester linkage
The active moiety excreted rapidly in the urine, where it
achieves effective concentrations: UTI by ProteusChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 38
39. Ticarcillin
2-4 times more potent against pseudomonas
Ureidopenicillins: Piperacillin, Mezlocillin, Azlocillin
Spectrum: P. aeruginosa, Enterobacteriaceae (non β-lactamase
producing), Bacteroides, E. faecalis
Piperacillin-tazobactam: has the broadest antibacterial
spectrum of the penicillins: methicillin-susceptible S. aureus,
H. influenzae, B. fragilis, E. coli, Klebsiella
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 39
40. -lactamase inhibitors: Clavulinic Acid, Sulbactam, Tazobactam
Inhibits bacterial -lactamases
Most active against -lactamase produced by: S. aureus,
H.influenza, some enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroid spp.
Chromosomal -lactamases of Serratia spp, Enterobacter spp,
P. aeruginosa are not inhibited
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 40
42. Ampicillin-Sulbactam combo: Unasym®
Combination is available 1:0.5
Same spectrum of augmentin: used in mixed infection
Piperacillin-tozabactam combo: Zosyn®
Equivalent or superior to 3rd generation cephalosporin
Ticarcillin-clavulanic acid combo: Timentin®
750 mg + 50 mg: in 0.8 g Timentin OR 1.5 g + 100 mg: in 1.6
g OR 3 g + 200 mg: in 3.2 g
For: Klebsiella, E.coli, S aureus, P.aeruginosa, H.influenzae,
Enterobacter, Citrobacter, serratia marcescens, Bacteroides
fragilis, Staphylococus epidermidisChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 42
44. Resistance to Penicillins
Innate/Natural/: all cells w/c have no peptidoglycan
Fungi: cell wall is made of chitin
Mycobacteria: cell wall is mycolic acid/thick waxy layer/
Mycoplasma: have no cell wall
Pseudomonas: have no porins for Pen-G
Chlamydia: obligate intracellular µbe: penicillin can’t enter
Viruses: have no cell wall
All human cells: have no cell wall; SAFEST ABX
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 44
45. Acquired:
-lactamase production: chromosomal or plasmid mediated
The gene for -lactamase is present in plasmids: can be
transferred to other bacteria w/c were initially non resistant
Plasmid mediated/conjugation/; the most dangerous: rapid
A bacterium can transfer plasmids for many bacteria
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 45
46. Chromosomal mediated: mutation & selection i.e vertical
Acquisition of chromosomal material/horizontal/
Transduction: phages
Transformation: taking genetic material from env’t or dead
bacteria
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 46
47. Acquired…
Alteration of porins: dev’t of tight porins
Due to mutation of the gene permeability
Efflux (active) pump: less common
Alteration of PBPs (trans peptidases): due to mutation of the
gene that codes for trans peptidases: most common
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 47
48. Drug Interactions:
Aminoglycosides: synergism
Inactive precipitate is formed if mixed in one container
Probenecid: inhibits the secretion of penicillins by competing
for active tubular secretion via the organic acid transporter
Bacteriostatic antibiotics: due to antagonism
Ampicillin and oral contraceptives;
Decreased enterohepatic circulation
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 48
49. Adverse effects
The safest drugs: no monitoring
Hypersensitivity reaction: pencillioc acid act as a hapten
Type-I: IgE mediated /immediate hypersensitivity
IgE-mediated degranulation of mast cells
Anaphylactic shock is the most dangerous
Need of skin test for the suspect penicillin
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 49
50. Type-II: IgG mediated
Penicillin metabolites alter RBC membrane proteins →
IgG mediated RBC destruction: penicillin associated hemolytic
anemia
Type-III:
Body produces Ab against penicillin
Ag-Ab complex mediated complement activation
Ag-Ab interacts & activates complement system → neutrophil
activation →
Vasculitis: skin rash, glomerulonephritis, pericarditis, pleuritis,
generalized lymphadenopathy, polyarthritisChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 50
51. Maculopapular rash: Ampicillin, direct toxicity especially in
patients with infectious mononucleosis due to EBV
Diarrhea: due to PO Ampicillin
Development of Clostridium difficile
Bloody diarrhea due to damage of GIT mucosa (Pseudo
membranous colitis)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 51
52. Nephritis: naficillin, methicillin (not in clinical use)
Neurotoxicity: GABAergic inhibition seizure
So, not given intrathecally
Inhibition of platelet function: Piperacillin, Ticarcillin,
carbencillin
Neutropenia
Cation toxicity: since they are given as a salt of Na or K
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 52
56. 1st Generation Cephalosporins
Relatively narrow spectrum (G+ve bacteria)
Selected 1st generation Cephalosporins;
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 56
57. 2nd Generation Cephalosporins
True Cephalosporins: Cefaclor, Cefamandole, Cefonicid,
Cefuroxime, Cefprozil, Cefpodoxime, Loracarbef & Ceforanide.
Have high activity against: H.infleunza, N.meningitidis,
N.gonorhoeae
Cephamycins: Cefoxitin, Cefmetazole, Cefotetan.
Antibacterial against selected enterobacteriaceae; most
active against B.fragilis.
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 57
58. 3rd Generation Cephalosporins
Cefotaxime, Ceftriaxone, Ceftazidime, Cefoperazone,
Cefixime, Ceftizoxime.
Less active than 1st generation against G+ve cocci.
More active against Enterobacteriaceae.
Antipseudomonal activity from Cefoperazone & Ceftazidime
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 58
59. Ceftriaxone: most potent;t1/2=8hrsonce daily dose
High efficacy in bacterial meningitis, multiresistant typhoid
fever, complicated UTI, Abdominal sepsis, Septicaemias
Ceftazidime: excellent activity against G-ve: p.aeruginosa
Penetrate CSF & DOC in meningitis due to p.aeruginosa;
given parenterally.
Cefoperazone: strong against pseudomonas; high ppb
Do not reliable penetrate into CSF.
Indicated in severe urinary, respiratory, biliary infection and
septicaemia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 59
60. 4th Gen. Cephalosporins: Cefepime, Cefpirome
Rapidly cross the outer membrane of G-ve.
More resistant to hydrolysis [chromosomal -lactamase:
produced by enterobacter] & lactamases that inactivate 3rd
generation
Active against Enterobacteriaceae, P. aeruginosa, H. influenza
& Neisseria spp.
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 60
61. Advanced Generation: Ceftaroline
Broad spectrum
Administered IV as a Prodrug, Ceftaroline fosamil
Active against MRSA
Used for the tXt of complicated skin & skin structure
infections and CAP
The unique structure allows Ceftaroline to bind to PBP2a
found with MRSA and PBP2x found with Streptococcus
pneumoniae
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 61
62. In addition to its broad G+ve activity, it also has similar G-ve
activity to the 3rd Gen. cephalosporin; Ceftriaxone
Active against:
P. aeruginosa,
Extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing
Enterobacteriaceae,
Acinetobacter baumannii.
The twice-daily dosing regimen also limits use outside of an
institutional setting
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 62
63. Adverse effects
Allergic reactions
Antibiotic-associated colitis: super infection.
Bleeding: hypoprothrombinemia (methylthioterazole/MTT
containing group, 3rd generation)
Cefoperazone, Cefotetan, Cefamandole, Cefmetazole
Local effects: thrombophlebitis from IV injection
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 63
64. Drug interaction
Probenecid
Alcohol: Cephalosporins with MTT have disulfiram like rxn.
Drugs that promote bleeding
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 64
65. Other -lactam Antibiotics
Carbapenems: Ertapenem, Imipenem, Meropenem, Doripenem
Imipenem, with Cilastatin: Primaxin
MOA: Inhibit bacterial trans peptidases
– -lactamase resistant
Imipenem (IV)
Antimicrobial spectrum: G+ve and G-ve including P.
aeruginosa; & anaerobes
Distributed in CSF; metabolized in renal tubule by
dehydropeptidases which can be inhibited by cilastatin
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 65
66. Adverse effect
GIT: NVD in rapid IV infusion
CNS: Seizure
Hypersensitivity reaction
Therapeutic use
Serious hospital acquired infection
Treatment of mixed infections [aerobic & anaerobic].
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 66
67. MONOBACTAMS: Aztreonam
Isolated from Chromobacterium violaceum
MOA:
Bind to PBP inhibit cell wall synthesis.
Antimicrobial spectrum: narrow (G-ve aerobic bacteria: H.
Influenza, N. Meningitides, & pseudomonas).
-Lactamase resistant; no cross sensitivity with other -
lactam
Used as substitute to Aminoglycosides in UT, lower RT, skin &
soft tissue infection
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 67
69. FOSFOMYCIN: bactericidal
Inhibits the first cytoplasmic step in cell wall biosynthesis
Covalently binds with UDP-N-acetylglucosamine
enolpyruvyl transferase (MurA);
Involved in the formation of the peptidoglycan precursor
UDP N-acetylmuramic acid (UDPMurNAc)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 69
70. Fosfomycin uses two mechanisms for cellular entry;
L-alphaglycerophosphate & hexose-6-phosphate
transporter systems
Fosfomycin reduces adherence of bacteria to urinary
epithelial cells
It also suppresses PAF receptors in respiratory epithelial
cells → reducing adhesion of S.pneumoniae &
H.influenzaeChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 70
71. Has oral & parenteral forms
Dose:
3g Stat PO (FDA) for uncomplicated UTI, OR
3g Q10 days for UTI prophylaxis
The oral formulation is a powder (fosfomycin tromethamine) &
BA is approximately 40%, with a t1/2 of 5-8 h
Distribution: low in blood but highly concentrated in urine
ADR: well tolerated; GI distress, vaginitis, headache, dizziness
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 71
73. MOA:
Acts within the cytoplasm to prevent the formation of D-
alanine-D-alanine
It does this by mimicking the structure of D-alanine &
inhibiting;
L-alanine racemase: racemizing L-alanine to D-alanine
D-alanine-D-alanine ligase: linking the 2 D-alanine units
together
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 73
74. Spectrum: both G-ve & G+ve
Against MAC, MTB, Enterococci, S. aureus, S. epidermidis,
Nocardia & Chlamydia
Salmonella, Shigella, E. coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Serratia,
Citrobacter, Proteus mirabilis, L.monocytogenes, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, Aerococcus urinae, H.pylori
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 74
75. BACITRACIN
An antibiotic produced by the Tracy-I strain of Bacillus subtilis
Bacitracins are a group of polypeptide antibiotics; multiple
components have been demonstrated in the commercial pdts
The major constituent is bacitracin A; its probable structural
formula is:
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 75
76. ✍ BACITRACIN:
Inhibits the recycling of pyrophosphobactoprenol to the inner
leaflet
Bactoprenol is a lipid synthesized by 3 d/t species of
lactobacilli. It is a hydrophobic C55 isoprenoid.
BPP transports NAM & NAG across the cell membrane during
the synthesis of peptidoglycan, by flipping the repeating
monomer units from the cytoplasm to the periplasm
Bactoprenol remains in the membrane at all times
Since it is associated with severe nephrotoxicity, not given
systemically rather used topicallyChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 76
77. Clinical Use:
Alone or in combination with polymyxin or neomycin: Rx of
mixed skin, wound or mucous membrane infections
Adverse Effects:
Significant nephrotoxicity: systemic administration
Skin sensitization: on topical use
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 77
78. VANCOMYCIN
A tricyclic glycopeptide antibiotic produced by Streptococcus
orientalis
MOA:
Binding to peptidoglycan pentapeptide Transglycosylase
inhibition inhibition of elongation of peptidoglycan
(glycosylation) no cross linking
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 78
80. Spectrum:
Against G+ve: MRSA, MRSE & Cl.difficile
PKs: not absorbed orally; given IV except antibiotic induced
colitis
Resistance: alteration of the D-alanyl-D-alanine target to D-alanyl-
D-lactate or D-alanyl D-serine, to w/c vancomycin can’t bind
VRSA: FQs, linezolid, streptogramins; quinupristin/dalfopristin
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 80
84. Protein synthesis inhibitors
Substances that stops or slows the growth or proliferation of
cells by blocking the generation of new proteins
Act at the ribosome level (either the ribosome itself or the
translation factor), taking advantages of the major d/ces b/n
prokaryotic & eukaryotic ribosome structures
Toxins: ricin also function via protein synthesis inhibition
Ricin acts at the eukaryotic 60S
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 84
85. Mechanism
Work at d/t stages of prokaryotic mRNA translation into
proteins, like;
Initiation
Elongation: aminoacyl tRNA entry, proofreading, peptidyl
transfer & ribosomal translocation &
Termination
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 85
86. Aminoglycosides
Streptomycin, Gentamicin, Kanamycin, Amikacin,
Tobramycin, Sisomycin, Neomycin, Paramomycin,…
General properties:
Composed of two or more amino sugars connected by a
glycoside linkage
At physiological pH, they are polycations
Are water soluble, stable in solution
Interact chemically with -lactam antibiotics
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 86
87. MOA:
Transport of aminoglycosides through outer membrane
by passive diffusion via porins; then they are actively
transported across the cell membrane
Low extracellular pH & anaerobic conditions inhibit
transport by reducing the gradient
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 87
88. MOA…
The drug binds to 30s rRNA irreversibly
Interference with the initiation complex of peptide
formation;
Misreading of mRNA, w/c causes incorporation of
incorrect amino acids into the peptide & results in a non
functional or toxic protein;
Breakup of polysomes into non functional monosomesChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 88
92. Antimicrobial spectrum
Aerobic, gram-negative organisms
Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, E.coli, others
Pharmacokinetics
Absorbed very poorly from intact GIT: IM & IV
Distribution limited to ECF;
Bind to renal tissue nephrotoxicity
Penetrate to perilymph & endolymph of inner ear
ototoxicity
Eliminated primarily by kidney
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 92
93. ONCE DAILY DOSING
2-3 equally divided doses (traditional)
Once daily dosing may be preferred in certain situations,
since they have PAE & conc. dependent killing
Once daily dose;
Efficacious as traditional multiple dose method
Lower but not eliminate: nephrotoxicity & ototoxicity
Simple, less time consuming & cost effective
Does not worsen neuromuscular function
Exceptions: in pts with Enterococcal endocarditis; further
study in pediatricsChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 93
94. Therapeutic uses
Against G-ve enteric bacteria in bacterimia & sepsis; TB
In combination with -lactam antibiotic to increase
coverage(G+ve) & synergism
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 94
97. Adverse Effects
Ototoxicity
Cochlear toxicity: tinnitus, high frequency hearing loss
– Neomycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin
Vestibular toxicity: vertigo, ataxia, loss of balance
– Streptomycin & Gentamycine
Nephrotoxicity: injure cells of proximal renal tubule
Risk factors: older pts, renal disease, large doses, frequent
dosing interval, concomitant drugs: Vancomycin, Frusemide,
Clindamycin, Piperacillin, Cephalothin, Foscarnet
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 97
98. Neuromuscular blockade: rarely
Weakness of respiratory musculature
Risk is amplified in pts with tubocurarine, succinylcholine
Aminoglycosides prevent internalization of Ca2+ in
presynaptic axon decrease release of acetylcholine
Skin rash
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 98
99. Aminocyclitols: Spectinomycin
Structurally related to aminoglycosides
It lacks amino sugars & glycosidic bonds
MOA: binds with 30s sub unit of rRNA
Active in vitro against many G+ve & G-ve
Used almost solely as an alternative treatment for drug-
resistant gonorrhea or gonorrhea in penicillin-allergic pts
The majority of gonococcal isolates are inhibited by 6
mcg/mL of Spectinomycin
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 99
100. Strains of gonococci may be resistant to spectinomycin, but
there is no cross-resistance with other drugs used in
gonorrhea
Spectinomycin is rapidly absorbed after IM injection
A single dose of 40 mg/kg up to a maximum of 2 g is given
Side effects:
Pain at the injection site &, occasionally, fever & nausea
Rarely nephrotoxicity & anemia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 100
101. Tetracyclines
Oxytetracycline, Tetracycline, Demeclocycline,
Doxycycline, Minocycline
Antimicrobial spectrum: broad
G+ve & G-ve aerobic & anaerobic bacteria
Spirochetes, Mycoplasma, Rickettsia, Chlamydia & some
protozoa
Glycylcyclines (Tigecycline):
Related to TTCs in their MOA as well as spectrum
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 101
103. MOA:
Enter microorganism by passive & active transport
Act by binding 30s ribosome reversibly block the binding
of aminoacyl t-RNA to A site on the mRNA-ribosome
complex/Elongation (tRNA delivery)
Tetracyclines prevent stable binding of the EF-Tu-tRNA-GTP
ternary complex to the ribosome and inhibit accommodation
of A-tRNAs upon EF-Tu-dependent GTP hydrolysis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 103
107. Adverse Effects
GI Irritation: oral therapy burning, cramps & NVD
Super infection
Effect on bone & teeth;
Yellow or brown discoloration of teeth
Hypoplasia of enamel
Suppression of long bone growth in infants
Doxycycline bind less with Ca2+ less frequent dental
changes
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 107
108. Liver toxicity
Kidney toxicity: in kidney impairment except doxycycline
Photosensitization: especially demeclocycline induce
sensitivity to sunlight or ultraviolet light, particularly in
fair-skinned persons
Vestibular reactions: vertigo, nausea & vomiting
>100mg doses of doxycycline; 200-400mg of Minocycline
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 108
109. Macrolides
Macro cyclic lactone ring to which deoxysugar is attached
Erythromycin, Clarithromycin, Azithromycin
MOA:
Binding to 50s rRNA inhibiting peptidyl transfer,
ribosomal translocation (transpeptidation), premature
dissociation of peptidyl t-rRNA from the ribosome
inhibition of protein synthesis
Usually bacteriostatic, may be -cidal @ high dose
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 109
111. Erythromycin
Pharmacokinetics
Decreased by stomach acid enteric coating
Stearate & esters: fairly acid resistant better absorbed
Estolate salt best absorbed orally
Administration: topical, PO, IM, IV
Excretion: primarily bile & faces
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 111
112. Clarithromycin
Similar with erythromycin with respect to antibacterial
activity & drug interaction except:
More active against M. avium complex
Also against M. leprae, H.pylori, Toxoplasma gondii
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 112
113. Azithromycin
Semisynthetic derivative of Erythromycin
Have better oral absorption
Longer t1/2
Fewer GI side effects
Are expensive
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 113
114. Azithromycin is similar to clarithromycin except:
✍ Less active against staphylo-& strepto-cocci
✍ Slightly more active against H. influenza
✍ Highly active against Chlamydia
✍ Long t1/2 [3days] permit once daily dosing
✍ Free of drug interaction
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 114
118. Adverse Effects
GI effects: ANVD
Liver toxicity: estolate salts cause acute cholestatic
hepatitis due to hypersensitivity reaction
Drug Interaction
Erythromycin metabolized to form inactive complexes
with CYP450 ↑level of Terfenadine or Astemizole
↑BA of digoxin by interfering with its inactivation in gut
flora
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 118
119. Lincosamides: Clindamycin
MOA: inhibition of protein synthesis via binding to 50s rRNA
Usually bacteriostatic
Therapeutic use:
Infections that involve B.fragilis & penicillin resistant
anaerobic bacteria
With aminoglycosides/ Cephalosporins to treat penetrating
wounds of the abdomen
Infections of female genital tract;
Pelvic abscess, aspiration pneumonia (anaerobes above the
diaphragm)Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 119
120. Recommended instead of erythromycin for prophylaxis of
endocarditis
Clindamycin + Primaquine in TXt of moderate or severe PCP
alternative to Cotrimoxazole
Clindamycin + Pyrimethamine for AIDS related toxoplasmosis
Adverse effects:
Nausea,
Diarrhea &
Skin rashes
Clindamycin associated colitis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 120
122. Amphenicoles: Chloramphenicol (CAPH), MOA:
Binds to specific nucleotides within the 50S ribosome, w/c
inhibits peptidyl transferase activity & peptide bonding
Inhibit both bacterial & mitochondrial ribosomes (but not
cytoplasmic)
Suppresses synthesis of important enzymes: cytochromes
a + a3 & b suppresses mitochondrial respiration
oxidative stress (mitochondrial toxicity)Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 122
123. MOA:…
Inhibition of mitochondrial function is thought to be the
mechanism underlying dose-dependent reversible bone
marrow suppression
Reactive metabolites of CAPH may be mutagenic dev’t of
aplastic anemia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 123
125. Drug Class: Antibiotic (broad spectrum & bacteriostatic)
Indications:
Rarely used in US b/c of aplastic anemia
A “treatment of last choice” for MDR: vancomycin-
resistant Enterococcus
Used in developing countries: inexpensive & effective
Broad spectrum: N.meningitidis, C.perfringens,
Bacteroides, H.influenzae (bactericidal effect in this
sensitive organism), Salmonella typhi & Rickettsia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 125
127. ADRs:
GI disturbance: NVD
Bone marrow suppression: dose-dependent & reversible
Aplastic anemia: idiosyncratic, rare, lethal
Gray baby syndrome: ed conjugation & excretion
Vomiting, limb body tone, gray skin color
Cyanosis: blue lips & skin
Hypotension, cardiovascular collapse
Superinfection
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 127
128. Drug Interactions:
CAF inhibits some of the hepatic mixed-function
oxidases
Blocks the metabolism of drugs: warfarin & phenytoin
Elevating their conc. & potentiating their effects
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 128
131. NUCLEIC ACID SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS
Indirect inhibitors: antimetabolites
Sulfonamides, trimethoprim, pyrimethamine
Activity & clinical uses:
Sulfonamides alone limited in use b/c of multiple resistance
Sulfasalazine is a prodrug used in ulcerative colitis & RA
Ag sulfadiazine used in burns
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 131
134. Pharmacokinetics:
Sulfonamides are hepatically acetylated (conjugation)
Renally excreted metabolites cause crystalluria (older
drugs)
High protein binding:
Drug interaction
Kernicterus in neonates: avoid in third trimester
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 134
139. Kernicterus: displacing bilirubin from plasma protein
crosses the BBB; avoid in 3rd trimester & < 2 months age
Renal damage: they form crystal urea
Trimethoprim or pyrimethamine:
Bone marrow suppression: leukopenia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 139
140. COTRIMOXAZOLE: TMP + SMX
Trimethoprim & Sulphamethoxazole: to resistance
Shows synergism Cidal
Selected because of similarity in pharmacokinetics
MOA: inhibition of two sequential steps
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 140
141. Therapeutic Uses
UTI: caused by E.coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, P.mirabilis
PCP: Txt of choice
Drug of choice for shigellosis
Other infections;
Acute otitis media & chronic bronchitis: H. infleunza,
S.pneumonia
Urethritis & pharyngitis due to penicillinase producing N.
gonorrhoe
Alternative to CAPH for typhoid fever
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 141
142. Pharmacokinetics
TMP concentrates in the relatively acidic milieu of prostate &
vaginal fluids effective
TMP (1part) & SMX (5part)
Adverse effects
Dermatologic
GI: NV & stomatitis
Hematologic: megaloblastic anemia; leukopenia;
thrombocytopenia
HIV pts with PCP: drug induced fever, rashes, diarrhea
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 142
143. Direct Inhibitors of Nucleic Acid Synthesis
Quinolones, FQs & Rifamycins
Naldixic acid, Ciprofloxacin, Levofloxacin, "-floxacins”
MOA:
Block DNA replication by inhibit the ligase domains of;
Topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase): in G-ve bacteria relaxation
of super coiled DNA DNA strand breakage &
Topoisomerase IV: G+ve bacteria impacts chromosomal
stabilization during cell division, thus interfering with the
separation of newly replicated DNA
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 143
145. Antimicrobial Spectrum
Norfloxacin is the least active of FQs against G+ve & G-ve
Ciprofloxacin, Enoxacin, Lemofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Pefloxacin,
Levo-, Moxi-, Gemi- & Gati-floxacin:
Excellent against G-ve: pseudomonas, enterobacteriaceae,
haemophilus spp., Neisseria spp., Campylobacter
Moderate to good against G+ve: methicillin susceptible strains
of staph; streptococci & enterococci tend to be less susceptible
FQs also have activity against Mycoplasma & Chlamdiae;
Legionella spp. & Mycobacteria
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 145
146. Pharmacokinetics
Absorption: well absorbed, food does not reduce absorption
Distribution: Vd is high
Concentration in prostate, kidney, bile, lung, neutrophils/
macrophages exceed serum concentration.
Elimination
Ofloxacin & lomefloxacin: predominantly by kidney.
Pefloxacin, sparfloxacin, trovafloxacin: nonrenal pathway.
Most others have mixed excretion: renal & nonrenal
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 146
147. Drug interaction
With di or trivalent cations: cation-quinolone complex
Inhibit CYP1A2: increase serum methylxanthine
Can elevate levels of warfarin [PT time monitored]
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 147
155. Drugs For the Treatment of Mycobacterial infection
Mycobacterium infection continues to be difficult to treat;
Slow & rapid growing microbe
Can also be dormant; resistant to many drugs
Cell wall: Greek mycos; waxy appearance (lipid rich)
Efflux pumps: the cell membrane is rich in ABC permeases
Location in host;
Needs prolonged treatment
Drug toxicity & poor patient compliance
High risk of emergency of resistant bacteria
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 155
156. The objective of therapy is: to eliminate symptoms & prevent
relapse
So, must kill actively dividing & resting mycobacteria
Since the response to chemotherapy is slow: Rx is prolonged
Combination of drugs: to prevent the emergence of resistance
TB resistance can be:
Mono drug resistance
Multi drug resistance (MDR-TB)
Extensively drug resistance (XDR-TB)
Total drug resistance – TDR-TB: India, Iran, Italy
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 156
157. ANTIMYCOBACTERIAL DRUGS
☞Superior efficacy & acceptable toxicity;
Rifamycins: Rifampin, Rifapentine, Rifabutin
Pyrazinamide: 25 mg/kg/d
Isoniazid: 300 mg/day
Ethambutol: 15-25 mg/kg/d
Dosage: adult dose in normal renal function
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 157
162. ISONIAZID (INH/Isonicotinic hydrazide)-H
H enters bacilli by passive diffusion
The drug is not directly toxic to the bacillus but must be
activated to its toxic form within the bacillus by KatG
KatG catalyzes the production from H of an isonicotinoyl
radical that subsequently interacts with mycobacterial
NAD & NAPD to produce a dozen adducts: nicotinoyl-NAD
isomer, nicotinoyl-NADP isomer
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 162
163. Nicotinoyl-NAD isomer, inhibits the activities of enoyl acyl
carrier protein reductase (InhA) & KasA → inhibits
synthesis of mycolic acid → cell death
Nicotinoyl-NADP isomer, potently inhibits mycobacterial
DHFR, thereby interfering with nucleic acid synthesis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 163
164. Other products of KatG activation of H:
Superoxide, H2O2, alkyl hydroperoxides, & the NO radical
May also contribute to the mycobactericidal effects of H
M.TB especially sensitive to damage from these radicals
b/c the bacilli have a defect in the central regulator of the
oxidative stress response, oxyR
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 164
165. ☞Backup defense against radicals is provided by alkyl
hydroperoxide reductase (encoded by ahpC), w/c
detoxifies organic peroxides
☞Increased expression of ahpC reduces H effectiveness
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 165
167. Pharmacokinetics
Absorption: well after PO or IM
Distributed widely: CSF 20% of plasma conc.
Increased in meningeal inflammation
Metabolized by acetylation: fast acetylators: hepatotoxicity,
slow acetylation: peripheral neuropathy
Acetylation status does not generally affect the outcome with
daily therapy
Therapeutic Uses
Component of all TB chemotherapeutic regimens
Alone is used to prevent TBChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 167
168. Adverse effects
Allergic reactions: fever, skin rashes
Direct toxicities:
Drug induced hepatitis: high risk age, rifampin, alcohol
Peripheral neuropathy:
Due to relative vit-B6 deficiency: promotes excretion
Likely to occur in slow acetylators & pts with predisposing
factor: malnutrition, alcoholism, diabetes, AIDS & uremia
Reversed by administration of vitamin B6
Convulsion, optic neuritis, psychosis reversed by vit-B6
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 168
169. Drug interaction
H is a potent inhibitor of CYP2C19 & CYP3A & a weak
inhibitor of CYP2D6
H induces CYP2E1
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 169
170. RIFAMYCINS: Rifampin, Rifapentine & Rifabutin
RIFAMPICIN/RIFAMPIN: R
MOA: binds to the β subunit of DNA-dependent RNA
polymerase (rpoB) to form a stable drug-enzyme complex
suppresses chain formation in RNA synthesis cidal
Pharmacokinetics
Well absorbed, distributed throughout the body
Excreted mainly through liver into bile
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 170
171. Therapeutic uses
Mycobacterial infection:
TB: cidal for intra & extracellular bacteria
In TB prevention as an alternative to H
Leprosy
Atypical mycobacteria
Prophylaxis in contacts of children with H.influenzae type b
disease (meningitis)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 171
172. Therapeutic uses…
In combination with other agents;
To eradicate staphylococcal carriage
For Rx of serious staphylococcal infections;
Osteomyelitis
Prosthetic valve endocarditis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 172
173. Adverse effects
Hepatitis
Hypersensitivity reactions
Fever, flushing, pruritus
Thrombocytopenia
Interstitial nephritis
Miscellaneous ADR: harmless orange color appearing in
urine, saliva, tears, sweat & soft contact lenses
GI upset
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 173
174. ETHAMBUTOL(E)
MOA:
Inhibits mycobacterial arabinosyl transferase-III, encoded by
the emb AB gene
Arabinosyl transferases are involved in the polymerization
reaction of arabinoglycan (arabinogalactan biosynthesis), an
essential component of the mycobacterial cell wall
bacteriostatic
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 174
175. Therapeutic use: TB
Adverse effects
Retrobulbar neuritis (optic neuritis)
Loss of visual acuity & red-green color blindness
GI intolerance
Hyperuricemia due to deceased uric acid excretion
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 175
176. PYRAZINAMIDE (Z)
Synthetic pyrazine analogue of nicotinamide
Converted to pyrazinoic acid, active form of drug
Largely bacteriostatic,
But can be cidal on actively replicating mycobacteria
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 176
177. Pyrazinamide is activated by acidic conditions: 5-6 pH
Proposed MCZs:
Z passively diffuses into mycobacterial cells
M. TB pyrazinamidase deaminates Z to pyrazinoic acid
(POA−)
POA− passively diffused to the extracellular acidic milieu
POA− is protonated to the uncharged form; POAH
POAH (lipid-soluble) reenters the bacillus & accumulates
due to a deficient efflux pump
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 177
178. Acidification of the intracellular milieu is believed to
inhibit enzyme function & collapse the transmembrane
proton motive force, thereby killing the bacteria
Inhibitors of energy metabolism or reduced energy
production states lead to enhanced Z effect
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 178
179. Other targets of Z:
Ribosomal protein S1 in the trans-translation process, so
that toxic proteins due to stress accumulate & kill the
bacteria
An aspartate decarboxylase involved in making precursors
needed for pantothenate & CoA biosynthesis in persistent
M. tuberculosis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 179
180. Therapeutic use: for RX of TB only
Sterilizing agent in intensive phase of therapy
Allows total duration of therapy to be shortened to 6 months
M.bovis & M.leprae are innately resistant to Pyrazinamide
Adverse effects
GI intolerance,
Joint pains (arthralgia),
The most hepatotoxic agent
Hyperuricemia
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 180
182. ANTI-TB DRUGS
Drugs available in FDC in Ethiopia:
ERHZ: 275/150/75/400 mg, RHZ: 150/75/400 mg
RH: 150/75 mg, EH: 400/150 mg
TB medicines available as loose form are:
Ethambutol 400mg,
Isoniazid 300mg,
Streptomycin sulphate vials 1gm
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 182
183. PHASES OF CHEMOTHERAPY
There are two phases:
1. Intensive (initial) phase(IP)
Consists of 4 or more drugs
Duration: 8 wks for new cases & 12 wks for re-treatment
The drugs must be swallowed daily under DOT
Rapid killing of actively growing & semi dormant bacilli
It renders the patient non infectious ( 2wks)
Protects against the development of resistance
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 183
184. 2. Continuation phase
Immediately follows the intensive phase
Consists of 2 or 3 drugs
Duration is 4 – 6 months
Except for re-treatment cases drugs must be collected every
month
Eliminates bacilli that are still multiplying
Reduces failures and relapses
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 184
185. 1. New Patients
New patients presumed or known to have drug-susceptible
TB, pulmonary TB: 2HRZE/4HR
Alternatives:
2HRZE/4(HR)3: a daily IP followed by thrice weekly
continuation phase, provided that each dose is DOT OR
2(HRZE)3/4(HR)3: thrice weekly dosing throughout therapy,
provided that every dose is directly observed and the patient
is NOT living with HIV or living in an HIV-prevalent setting
Settings with high levels of H resistance in new patients:
2HRZE/4HREChemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 185
186. 2. Previously Treated Patients
Specimens for culture & drug susceptibility testing (DST)
should be obtained from all previously treated TB patients at
or before the start of treatment
DST should be performed for at least for R & H
Recommendation: 2HRZE(S)/1HRZE/5HRE
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 186
187. Special population
Co-Management of HIV and Active TB Disease
It is recommended that TB patients who are living with
HIV should receive at least the same duration of TB
treatment as HIV negative TB patients
TB tXt should be started first, followed by ART as soon as
possible and within the first 8 wks of starting TB tXt
The recommended first-line ART regimens for TB patients
are those that contain efavirenz (EFV)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 187
188. Pregnancy
With the exception of streptomycin, the 1st line anti-TB drugs
are safe for use in pregnancy: streptomycin is ototoxic to the
fetus & should not be used during pregnancy
TB and Leprosy
R will be common to both regimens and it must be given in
the doses required for TB
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 188
189. Treatment of patients with renal failure
Avoid streptomycin & Ethambutol
Give 2RHZ/4RH
Treatment of patients known liver disease
Do not give Pyrazinamide because this is the most hepatotoxic
anti-TB drug
Recommended regimens: 2SERH/6EH or 2SEH/10EH
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 189
190. Treatment of Extrapulmonary TB
Of the EPTB, lymphatic, pleural & bone or joint disease are
most common, while pericardial, meningeal & disseminated
(miliary) forms are more likely to result in a fatal outcome
TB meningitis: 9-12 months of treatment
TB of bones or joints: 9 months of treatment
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 190
191. Bicyclic Nitroimidazoles
Delaminid, Pretomanid: pro-drugs
Being used in the treatment of X-DR & MDR-TB
Are in clinical trials for use in drug-susceptible TB
Delamanid: dihydro-nitroimidazooxazole derivative
Activated by the enzyme deazaflavin dependent
nitroreductase (Rv3547)
Forms a reactive intermediate metabolite that inhibits
mycolic acid production
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 191
192. Pretomanid
Activated by the bacteria via a nitroreduction step that
requires, a specific G6PDX, FGD1 & the reduced deazaflavin
cofactor F420 encoded by Rv3547
Has two mechanisms of action;
1st, under aerobic conditions it inhibits M. TB mycolic acid &
protein synthesis at the step b/n hydroxymycolate &
ketomycolate
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 192
193. 2nd, in NRPB, it generates reactive nitrogen species such
as NO via its des-nitro metabolite, which then augment
the kill of intracellular NRPB by the innate immune
system
In addition, direct poisoning of the respiratory complex in
the NRPB leads to ATP depletion
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 193
194. Bedaquiline
A cationic amphiphilic drug, which may account for its
high accumulation in tissues
Acts by targeting subunit c of the ATP synthase of M.TB
→ inhibition of the proton pump activity of the ATP
synthase
Targets bacillary energy metabolism
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 194
195. Ethionamide
A congener of thioisonicotinamide
☞Mycobacterial EthaA, NADPH-specific, FAD-containing
monooxygenase, converts ethionamide to a sulfoxide &
then to 2-ethyl-4-aminopyridine
☞A closely related & transient intermediate is the active
antibiotic
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 195
196. Ethionamide inhibits mycobacterial growth by inhibiting
the activity of the inhA gene product, the enoyl-ACP
reductase of fatty acid synthase II
As INH: inhibition of mycolic acid biosynthesis &
consequent impairment of cell wall synthesis
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 196
197. Para-aminosalicylic Acid: PAS
A structural analogue of PABA, the substrate of
dihydropteroate synthase (folP1/P2)
PAS is a competitive inhibitor folP1, but in vitro the
inhibitory activity against folP1 is very poor
However, mutation of the thymidylate synthase gene
(thyA) results in resistance to PAS, but only 37%
Unidentified actions of PAS likely play more important
roles in its anti-TB effects
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 197
198. Capreomycin
A cyclic peptide antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces
capreolus
Consists of 4 active components: capreomycins IA, IB,
IIA & IIB
Clinically used agent contains primarily IA & IB
MOA: protein synthesis inhibition
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 198
199. Show cross-resistance with kanamycin & neomycin
Shouldn’t be administered with other drugs that damage
cranial nerve VIII
Given for MDR-TB
Recommended daily dose is 1 g (no more than 20 mg/kg)
per day for 60-120 days, followed by 1 g two or three
times a week
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 199
200. Drugs active against atypical Mycobacterium
M.avium: cause disseminated TB in late stages of AIDS
Azithromycin or Clarithromycin + Ethambutol: well tolerated
regimen
Rifabutin & Clarithromycin: prevent M.avium complex
bacterimia in AIDS patients
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 200
201. ANTILEPROTIC DRUGS
Leprosy(Hansen’s disease) caused by M.leprae
There are two types of leprosy;
1. Lepromatous Leprosy
Severe, rapidly progress
Marked ulceration
Tissue destruction & nerve damage
TXt lasts at least 2yrs with Dapsone + R + Clofazimine
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 201
202. 2. Tuberculoid Leprosy
Mild infection
Slow in progress & loss of sensation
Rx lasts 6 months (Dapsone + Rifampicin)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 202
203. DAPSONE/SULFONES
Dapsone: DDS, diamino-diphenylsulfone
The primary drug: effective, low in toxicity & inexpensive
MOA: inhibition of folate synthesis
PK: given orally, well absorbed, widely distributed
Enterohepatic recycling
Excreted as metabolites renally
Adverse effects
Rashes, GI disturbance
Show erythema nodusom: inflammatory reaction
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 203
205. CLOFAZIMINE: weakly bactericidal
Possible MOA include:
Membrane disruption
Inhibition of mycobacterial phospholipase A2
Inhibition of microbial K+ transport
Generation of hydrogen peroxide
Interference with the bacterial electron transport chain
It has also anti-inflammatory effects via inhibition of
macrophages, T cells, neutrophils & complement
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 205
206. Used together with or as an alternative to Dapsone in sulfone
resistant leprosy or when patients are intolerant to sulfones
A common dosage is 100 mg/d orally
Adverse effects
Red brown to nearly black discoloration of the skin &
conjunctiva
GI intolerance (occasionally)
Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 206
207. Chemotherapy Compiled by Birhanu G. 207
RX of mycobacterial infections other than TB, leprosy & MAC