3. Chromatography is a physical method of
separation in which the components to be
separated are distributed between two
phases (KD/P = Distribution/partition constant)
one of which is stationary (stationary phase)
while the other (the mobile phase) moves
through it in a definite direction.
The chromatographic process occurs due to
differences in the distribution constant of the
individual sample components.
3
Chromatography
4. KD of Cpd A = [A]S / [A]M
KD = Distribution constant of compound A
[A]S = concentration of compound A in stationary phase
[A]M = concentration of compound A in mobile phase
For eg. TLC Chromatography
compounds distributes itself b/n a liquid mobile phase and a solid
stationary phase
The rate of migration for a chemical compound is determined by
how much of it distributes into the mobile and stationary phases
Case 1. A compound that distributes itself 100% into the mobile
phase
will migrate at the same rate of the mobile phase
Case 2: On the other hand, a compound that distributes itself 100%
in the stationary phase
will not migrate at all 4
5. In most molecular substances, there are
two types of attractive forces:
1. Intramolecular and
2. Intermolecular forces
5
Chromatographic separation is achieved due to
Different compounds have different KD values
Distribution constant (KD) is affected by
the type of intermolecular forces that present in
molecules
6. force that hold atoms in a single molecule or
a force of attraction within a molecule
e.g. covalent bond, ionic bond
H-Cl, Na
+
Cl
-
Intramolecular forces
6
7. an attraction between two or more separate
molecules.
are the result of attractions between positively and
negatively charged regions of separate molecules.
They are not as strong as intramolecular force
(chemical bonds).
Intermolecular forces
7
8. These intermolecular forces as a group
are referred to as van der Waals forces.
There are three types of intermolecular forces,
1. Dipole-dipole interactions
2. Hydrogen bond
3. London force/Dispersion force
8
9. A very approximate strength order would be:
Bond type Relative strength
Ionic bonds 1000
Hydrogen bonds 100
Dipole-dipole 10
London forces 1
9
10. Intermolecular Forces
They are, however, strong enough to control
physical properties such as, solubility, boiling
and melting points, vapor pressures, and
viscosities.
10
11. Dipole-Dipole Interactions
• Molecules that have
permanent dipoles are
attracted to each other.
√ The positive end of one is
attracted to the negative end of
the other and vice-versa.
√ These forces are only important
when the molecules are close to
each other.
11
12. It occurs in polar compounds
These work in a similar manner to ionic
interactions, but are weaker because only
partial charges are involved.
An example of this can be seen in Acetone
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
12
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14. Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding occurs when
Hydrogen is bonded to N, O, or F are
unusually strong.
Hydrogen atom has a partial positive
charge and can interact with
another highly electronegative atom
in an adjacent molecule (N, O, or F).
it is a special type of dipole-dipole
force
The result is a dipolar molecule
e.g H2O, NH3, HF 14
15. London/Dispersion Forces
While the electrons in the 1s orbital of helium
would repel each other (and, therefore, tend to
stay far away from each other), it does happen
that they occasionally wind up on the same
side of the atom.
It involve the attraction between temporarily
induced dipoles 15
16. London/Dispersion Forces
At that instant, then, the helium atom is
polar, with an excess of electrons on the
left side and a shortage on the right side.
16
17. London/Dispersion Forces
Another helium nearby, then, would have a
dipole induced in it, as the electrons on the
left side of helium atom 2 repel the
electrons in the cloud on helium atom 1.
17
18. London/Dispersion Forces
London dispersion forces, or dispersion
forces, are attractions between an
instantaneous /temporary dipole and an
induced dipole.
18
19. London/Dispersion Forces
These forces are present in all molecules,
whether they are polar or non-polar.
The tendency of an electron cloud to distort
in this way is called polarizability.
19
20. This polarization can be induced either by
A polar molecule or
A non-polar molecule (the repulsion
of negatively charged electron clouds in
non-polar molecules)
London/Dispersion Forces
20
22. Factors Affecting London Forces
The strength of dispersion forces tends to
increase with increased molecular weight.
Larger atoms have larger electron clouds, which
are easier to polarize.
22
23. Factors Affecting London Forces
The shape of the molecule
affects the strength of
dispersion forces: long, skinny
molecules (like n-pentane tend
to have stronger dispersion
forces than short, fat ones (like
neopentane).
This is due to the increased
surface area in n-pentane.
23
24. Which Have a Greater Effect:
Dipole-Dipole Interactions or Dispersion Forces?
• If two molecules are of comparable size
and shape, dipole-dipole interactions will
likely be the dominating force.
• If one molecule is much larger than
another, dispersion forces will likely
determine its physical properties.
24
25. Ion-Dipole Interactions
25
• A fourth type of force, ion-dipole
interactions are an important force in
solutions of ions.
• The strength of these forces are what make
it possible for ionic substances to dissolve
in polar solvents.
26. Anthocyanins (also anthocyans) are
belong to a parent class of molecules called flavonoids
cationic organic compound
well water-soluble pigments due to ion-dipole interaction
28. Polar Molecule
A Molecule with a Positive and Negative Side
Dipole Moment
• A Measure of Molecular Polarity
• A Non-polar Molecule will have a Zero Dipole
Moment
28
Molecular Polarity
29. Why is Polarity Important?
Many Properties Depend on Polarity
Melting and Boiling Point
Surface Tension, Viscosity
Reactivity
Solubility (e.g., will it dissolve in water)
29
30. Requirements
A Polar Molecule Requires
Polar Bonds
A Molecular Shape that Separates the by
the partial Positive from the Negative Side
30
31. Unequal sharing of e- in a bond called Polar
Covalent Bond or Polar Bond
Partial Charge indicated by delta +/-
Polar Covalent Bonds
-+
31
32. Polar Covalent Bonds
NON-polar covalent bonds
Bonds between identical atoms such as H-
H, F-F involve equal sharing of e-
Polar covalent bonds
Bonds between different atoms involve
unequal sharing of e-
Polar Covalent Bonds have a Partial
Charge Separation
32
35. Electronegativity
Used to Determine Bond Polarity
EN < 0.45 Non-polar Bond
1.75 > EN > 0.45 Polar Bond
EN > 1.75 Ionic Bond Atoms
35
Polar or Non-polar Bond?
O-H EN = 1.4 Polar Bond
C-H EN = 0.4 Non-polar Bond
C-O EN = 1.0 Polar Bond
H-Cl EN = 0.8 Polar Bond
36. Polar Molecules
The molecule is usually polar
If all atoms attached to central atom
are not the same
Or if central atom has 1 or more lone
pairs of electrons
36
38. In Conclusion
Polarity Determined from
Polar Bonds ( EN > 0.45)
Molecular Shape with + & - sides
N and O in Molecules often lead to
Polar Molecules or Regions
38
39. In Conclusion
Polarity will be important
In Determining Intermolecular Forces
Vapor Pressure, Boiling and Melting
Points
Surface Tension, Viscosity
Solubility
Reactivity (Organic Chemistry)
39
40. Intermolecular Forces Affect
Many Physical Properties
The strength of the
attractions between
particles can greatly
affect the properties of a
substance or solution.
41. Solubility
Defines as the amount of a solute that will dissolve in
a specific solvent at given condition
41
Degree of solubility (types of saturation)
Saturated solution: A solution with solute that dissolves
until it is unable to dissolve anymore, leaving the
undissolved substances at the bottom.
Unsaturated solution: A solution (with less solute than the
saturated solution) that completely dissolves, leaving no
remaining substances.
Supersaturated solution: solution (with more solute than
the saturated solution) that contains more undissolved
solute than the saturated solution because of its tendency
to crystallize and precipitate
42. Factors that affects solubility
The nature of solute and solvent
Temperature
Pressure (only applicable to gases)
42
43. The nature of solute and solvent
When two substances are similar they can dissolve in
each other
Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvent
Non-polar solutes tend to dissolve in non-polar solvent
“Like dissolve like”
two liquids dissolve in each other b/c the molecules
are alike in polarity
43
Note: solvents are grouped either polar or non-polar
solvent
Polar Solvent: a liquid made up of polar molecules
Non-polar Solvent: a liquid made up of non-polar molecules
44. The nature of solute and solvent
Ionic compounds are made up of charged ions
similar to polar compounds e.g. NaCl
Ionic compounds are more soluble in polar
solvent than in a non-polar solvent
ion-dipole interaction
44
46. Temperature
Solubility of solids in liquids
The solubility of a solid increases as temp increases
Solubility of gases in liquid are affected by temperature
Opposite to the solubility of solids in liquids
As the temperature increases, the solubility of a GAS
in a liquid decreases
WHY ?
As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of
the solute gas increases and the gas can escape
46
47. Pressure
when the pressure is increased over the
solvent, the solubility of gas is increased
WHY ?
Pressure increases as gas molecules strike the
surface to enter the solution increased
47
48. Factors of Dissolving
Rate of which a solid solute dissolves in a solution
depends on three factors
Surface area: speed up the solubility by
increasing surface area
Stirring: increases contact b/n solvent and
solute
Temperature: kinetic energy increase
48