This chapter discusses social perception and learning in organizational contexts. It defines key concepts like social identity theory, attribution processes, and biases that influence social perception. It also explains principles of learning like operant conditioning and different reinforcement schedules that shape behaviors in work environments. The goal is to understand how social perception and learning principles apply to performance appraisals, interviews, developing corporate images, and designing effective training programs.

1. Perception and Learning
Understanding and
Adapting to the Work
Environment
Chapter 2

2. Learning Objectives
1. Distinguish between the concepts of social perception and
social identity.
2. Explain how the attribution process works and describe the
various sources of bias in social perception.
3. Understand how the process of social perception operates in
the context of performance appraisals, employment
interviews, and the cultivation of corporate images.
4. Define learning and describe the two types most applicable
to OB: operant conditioning and observational learning.
5. Describe how principles of learning are involved in
organizational training and innovative reward systems.
6. Compare the way organizations use reward in organizational
behavior management programs, how they can use
punishment most effectively when administering discipline,
and how they can manage knowledge effectively.
© Copyright 2003, Prentice Hall 2

3. Social Identity Theory
Personal Identity: The characteristics that
Identity
define a particular individual.
Social Identity: Who a person is, as
Identity
defined in terms of his or her membership
in various social groups.
Social Identity Theory: A
Theory
conceptualization recognizing that the
way we perceive others and ourselves is
based on our unique characteristics and
our membership in various groups.
© Copyright 2003,
3

4. Social Identity Theory
© Copyright 2003,
4

5. Social Perception
 Social Perception:
Perception The process of
combining, integrating, and
interpreting information about others
to gain an accurate understanding of
them.
 Attribution: The process through
Attribution
which individuals attempt to
determine the causes behind others’
behavior.
© Copyright 2003,
5

6. Correspondent Inferences
Judgments about people’s dispositions, traits,
and characteristics, that correspond to what we
have observed of their actions.
© Copyright 2003,
6

7. Causal Attribution
 Causes of Behavior:
Behavior
– Internal: Explanations based on actions for
Internal
which the individual is responsible.
– External: Explanations based on situations
External
over which the individual has no control.
 Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution:
Attribution The
approach suggesting that people will
believe others’ actions to be caused by
internal or external factors based on three
types of information: consensus,
consistency, and distinctiveness.
© Copyright 2003,
7

8. Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
 Consensus:
Consensus Information regarding the
extent to which other people behave in the
same manner as the person being judged.
 Consistency: Information regarding the
Consistency
extent to which the person being judged
acts the same way at other times.
 Distinctiveness: Information regarding
Distinctiveness
the extent to which a person behaves in
the same manner in other contexts.
© Copyright 2003,
8

9. Kelley’s Theory of Attribution
© Copyright 2003,
9

10. Stereotypes
Beliefs that all
members of
specific groups
share similar
traits and are
prone to behave
the same way.
© Copyright 2003,
10

11. Perceptual Biases
Predispositions that people have to
misperceive others in various ways.
Types include
– Fundamental attribution error
– Halo effect
– Similar-to-me effect
– First impression error
– Selective perception
© Copyright 2003,
11

12. Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to
attribute others’
actions to internal
causes (e.g., their
traits) while largely
ignoring external
factors that also
may have
influenced
behavior.
© Copyright 2003,
12

13. Halo Effect
The tendency for
our overall
impressions of
others to affect
objective
evaluations of their
specific traits;
perceiving high
correlations
between
characteristics that
may be unrelated.
© Copyright 2003,
13

14. Similar-to-Me Effect
The tendency for
people to perceive
in a positive light
others who are
believed to be
similar to
themselves in any
of several different
ways.
© Copyright 2003,
14

15. Selective Perception
The tendency to
focus on some
aspects of the
environment
while ignoring
others.
© Copyright 2003,
15

16. First Impression Error
The tendency to base our judgments of others on
our earlier impressions of them.
© Copyright 2003,
16

17. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The tendency for
Prophecy
someone’s expectations about another to cause
that person to behave in a manner consistent
with those expectations.
Pygmalion Effect: A positive instance of the self-
Effect
fulfilling prophecy, in which people holding high
expectations of another tend to improve that
individual’s performance.
Golem Effect: A negative instance of the self-
Effect
fulfilling prophecy, in which people holding low
expectations of another tend to lower that
individual’s performance.
© Copyright 2003,
17

18. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
© Copyright 2003,
18

19. Overcoming Biases
 Do not overlook the
external cases of
others’ behaviors.
 Identify your
stereotypes.
 Evaluate people
based on objective
factors.
 Avoid making rash
judgments.
© Copyright 2003,
19

20. Organizational Applications
 Performance Appraisal: The process of
Appraisal
evaluating employees on various work-
related dimensions.
 An inherently biased process
 Impresssion Management: Efforts by
Management
individuals (esp. in employment
interviews) to improve how they appear to
others.
 Corporate Image: The impressions that
Image
people have of an organization.
© Copyright 2003,
20

21. Applicant Impression Management
© Copyright 2003,
21

22. Corporate Image
© Copyright 2003,
22

23. Learning Concepts
Learning: A relatively permanent change
Learning
in behavior occurring as a result of
experience.
Operant Conditioning: The form of
Conditioning
learning in which people associate the
consequences of their actions with the
actions themselves.
– Behaviors with positive consequences are
acquired.
– Behaviors with negative consequences tend to
be eliminated.
© Copyright 2003,
23

24. Operant Conditioning Process
© Copyright 2003,
24

25. Reinforcement Concepts
 Positive Reinforcement:
Reinforcement The
process by which people learn to
perform behaviors that lead to the
presentation of desired outcomes.
 Negative Reinforcement: The
Reinforcement
process by which people learn to
perform acts that lead to the removal
of undesired events.
© Copyright 2003,
25

26. Punishment and Extinction
Punishment: Decreasing
Punishment
undesirable behavior by following
it with undesirable consequences.
Extinction: The process through
Extinction
which responses that are no
longer reinforced tend to gradually
diminish in strength.
© Copyright 2003,
26

27. Contingencies of Reinforcement
© Copyright 2003,
27

28. Schedules of Reinforcement
Rules governing the timing and
frequency of the administration of
reinforcement.
Continuous Reinforcement: A
Reinforcement
schedule of reinforcement in which
all desired behaviors are reinforced.
Partial Reinforcement: A schedule of
Reinforcement
reinforcement in which only some
desired behaviors are reinforced.
© Copyright 2003,
28

29. Fixed Interval Schedules
Schedules of
reinforcement in
which a fixed
period of time
must elapse
between the
administration of
reinforcements.
© Copyright 2003,
29

30. Variable Interval Schedules
Schedules of
reinforcement in
which a variable
period of time
(based on some
average) must
elapse between the
administration of
reinforcements.
© Copyright 2003,
30

31. Fixed Ratio Schedules
Schedules of
reinforcement in
which a fixed
number of
responses must
occur between the
administration of
reinforcements.
© Copyright 2003,
31

32. Variable Ratio Schedules
Schedules of
reinforcement in
which a variable
number of
responses (based
on some average)
must occur
between the
administration of
reinforcements.
© Copyright 2003,
32

33. Observational Learning
The form of learning in which people acquire
new behaviors by systematically observing the
rewards and punishments given to others.
© Copyright 2003,
33

34. Steps in Observational Learning
© Copyright 2003,
34

35. Applications of Learning
 Training
 Innovative Reward
Systems
 Organizational
Behavior
Management
 Discipline
 Knowledge
Management
© Copyright 2003,
35

36. Training
The process of systematically teaching
employees to acquire and improve job-
related skills and knowledge.
Types of training:
– Classroom training
– Apprenticeship programs
– Cross-cultural training
– Executive training programs
– Corporate universities
– E-training
© Copyright 2003,
36

37. Keys to Effective Training
 Participation: Active involvement in the
Participation
process of learning; more active participation
leads to more effective learning.
 Repetition: The process of repeatedly
Repetition
performing a task so that it may be learned.
 Transfer of Training: The degree to which the
Training
skills learned during training sessions may
be applied to performance on one’s job.
 Feedback: Knowledge of the results of one’s
Feedback
behavior.
© Copyright 2003,
37

38. Innovative Reward Systems
$ Skill-Based Pay: An innovative reward
Pay
system in which people are paid based
on the number of different skills they
have learned relevant to performing
one or more jobs in the organization.
$ Team-Based Rewards: Innovative
Rewards
reward systems in which employees
are paid on the basis of their team’s
performance.
© Copyright 2003,
38

39. Organizational Behavior Management
The practice of
altering
behavior in
organizations by
systematically
administering
rewards.
© Copyright 2003,
39

40. Discipline
The process of systematically
administering punishment.
Progressive Discipline: The
Discipline
practice of gradually increasing
the severity of punishments for
employees who exhibit
unacceptable job behavior.
© Copyright 2003,
40

41. Continuum of Disciplinary Measures
© Copyright 2003,
41

42. Using Punishment Effectively
 Deliver punishment immediately after the
undesirable response occurs.
 Give moderate levels of punishment – nothing
too high or too low.
 Punish the undesirable behavior, not the person.
 Use punishment consistently across occasions.
 Punish everyone equally for the same infraction.
 Clearly communicate the reasons for the
punishment given.
 Do not follow punishment with noncontingent
rewards.
© Copyright 2003,
42

43. Knowledge Management
The process of gathering, organizing, and
sharing a company’s information and
knowledge assets.
Intellectual Capital: Areas of expertise
Capital
represented by the employees within a
company.
Knowledge Managers: Individuals who
Managers
are responsible for organizing the wealth
of corporate knowledge represented by its
people and ensuring that this information
gets used effectively.
© Copyright 2003,
43

44. What Do Knowledge Managers Do?
 Explain the company’s knowledge management efforts
to everyone from board member to low-level employee.
 Secure funding for knowledge management projects.
 Promote job flexibility within the company, making it
possible for people with good ideas to execute them
readily.
 Develop, maintain, and promote use of an online
database of ideas that is readily accessible to all.
 Discourage keeping information and ideas within a
single division; encouraging all ideas, research findings,
and experiences to be shared with others.
© Copyright 2003,
44