This chapter discusses organic compounds and their structures and properties. It begins by explaining the bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are presented. Important reactions like addition, elimination, and substitution are defined. Functional groups are introduced as determinants of a compound's properties and reactivity. Specific functional groups like alcohols are discussed. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is presented as a tool for analyzing organic molecule structures.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and carbon chemistry. It covers the properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are examined. Important classes of organic reactions such as addition, elimination, and substitution are described. The chapter also explores functional groups and how they determine a molecule's reactivity and properties. Alcohols are highlighted as one functional group and their naming conventions and intermolecular hydrogen bonding are discussed.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry I and focuses on hydrocarbons. It defines key terms like saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2 and contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and have the general formula CnH2n. Alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds. The document discusses isomerism, naming conventions including IUPAC nomenclature, and aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene and its derivatives. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is introduced as an analytical tool for identifying organic compounds.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to hydrocarbons. It begins by explaining the unique bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, stable molecules through catenation. The main classes of hydrocarbons - alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and cyclic compounds - are introduced along with their structures, formulas, and IUPAC nomenclature rules. Isomerism, including constitutional and geometric isomers, is also discussed. Analytical techniques like NMR spectroscopy are presented as tools to analyze organic molecule structures.
New chm-152-unit-11-power-points-su13-140227172047-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
- Hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and cyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
- The bonding properties of carbon that allow for catenation and the diversity of organic molecules.
- Nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds using IUPAC nomenclature including examples of naming alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
- Isomers such as constitutional and geometric isomers.
- Key aspects of specific classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes having the general formula CnH2n+2 and benzene being an aromatic hydrocarbon.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of organic compounds, differences between organic and inorganic compounds, and key concepts. It discusses the early history when vitalism prevented the synthesis of organic compounds. Friedrich Wöhler was the first to synthesize an organic compound in a laboratory. The document also outlines types of organic compounds like hydrocarbons, and how they are named according to IUPAC rules. Carbon properties and different hybridizations that allow multiple bonds are covered.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It discusses:
- The early history of organic chemistry and the discovery that organic compounds could be synthesized in the lab.
- The main differences between organic and inorganic compounds in terms of their properties and bonding.
- The central role of carbon atoms in organic compounds and their ability to form chains and complex structures through catenation.
- The different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and their IUPAC naming conventions.
- Important organic functional groups derived from hydrocarbons like alkyl halides, alcohols, ethers, al
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. Carbon is unique due to its ability to form chains (catenation) and bonds (tetravalency), making it central to organic compounds. Hybridization allows carbon to form different types of bonds to satisfy its valence.
2. Organic compounds can be classified based on their structure as acyclic/aliphatic, cyclic/aromatic, or heterocyclic aromatic. Nomenclature systems like IUPAC provide standardized naming conventions.
3. Key concepts include structural representations showing bonding and 3D orientation, and classification of organic compounds based on functional groups and ring structures. Hybridization explains how carbon satisfies its valence to form
This document provides an overview of carbon and organic chemistry topics. It discusses the structure and properties of carbon, including its ability to form covalent bonds and exist in different allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene. Carbon's versatility is explained by its properties of catenation and tetravalency. The document outlines saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, and describes how carbon can form chains, branches and rings. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent bonding. Homologous series are defined as compounds with the same functional group substituting for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
This chapter discusses organic compounds and carbon chemistry. It covers the properties of carbon that allow it to form large, complex molecules through catenation. The structures and classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are examined. Important classes of organic reactions such as addition, elimination, and substitution are described. The chapter also explores functional groups and how they determine a molecule's reactivity and properties. Alcohols are highlighted as one functional group and their naming conventions and intermolecular hydrogen bonding are discussed.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry I and focuses on hydrocarbons. It defines key terms like saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n+2 and contain only single bonds between carbon atoms. Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds and have the general formula CnH2n. Alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds. The document discusses isomerism, naming conventions including IUPAC nomenclature, and aromatic hydrocarbons like benzene and its derivatives. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is introduced as an analytical tool for identifying organic compounds.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts related to hydrocarbons. It begins by explaining the unique bonding properties of carbon that allow it to form large, stable molecules through catenation. The main classes of hydrocarbons - alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and cyclic compounds - are introduced along with their structures, formulas, and IUPAC nomenclature rules. Isomerism, including constitutional and geometric isomers, is also discussed. Analytical techniques like NMR spectroscopy are presented as tools to analyze organic molecule structures.
New chm-152-unit-11-power-points-su13-140227172047-phpapp02Cleophas Rwemera
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
- Hydrocarbons such as alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, and cyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons.
- The bonding properties of carbon that allow for catenation and the diversity of organic molecules.
- Nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds using IUPAC nomenclature including examples of naming alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes.
- Isomers such as constitutional and geometric isomers.
- Key aspects of specific classes of hydrocarbons like alkanes having the general formula CnH2n+2 and benzene being an aromatic hydrocarbon.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of organic compounds, differences between organic and inorganic compounds, and key concepts. It discusses the early history when vitalism prevented the synthesis of organic compounds. Friedrich Wöhler was the first to synthesize an organic compound in a laboratory. The document also outlines types of organic compounds like hydrocarbons, and how they are named according to IUPAC rules. Carbon properties and different hybridizations that allow multiple bonds are covered.
This document provides an introduction to organic chemistry, including definitions of key terms and concepts. It discusses:
- The early history of organic chemistry and the discovery that organic compounds could be synthesized in the lab.
- The main differences between organic and inorganic compounds in terms of their properties and bonding.
- The central role of carbon atoms in organic compounds and their ability to form chains and complex structures through catenation.
- The different classes of hydrocarbons including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, and their IUPAC naming conventions.
- Important organic functional groups derived from hydrocarbons like alkyl halides, alcohols, ethers, al
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1. Carbon is unique due to its ability to form chains (catenation) and bonds (tetravalency), making it central to organic compounds. Hybridization allows carbon to form different types of bonds to satisfy its valence.
2. Organic compounds can be classified based on their structure as acyclic/aliphatic, cyclic/aromatic, or heterocyclic aromatic. Nomenclature systems like IUPAC provide standardized naming conventions.
3. Key concepts include structural representations showing bonding and 3D orientation, and classification of organic compounds based on functional groups and ring structures. Hybridization explains how carbon satisfies its valence to form
This document provides an overview of carbon and organic chemistry topics. It discusses the structure and properties of carbon, including its ability to form covalent bonds and exist in different allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerene. Carbon's versatility is explained by its properties of catenation and tetravalency. The document outlines saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, and describes how carbon can form chains, branches and rings. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent bonding. Homologous series are defined as compounds with the same functional group substituting for hydrogen in a carbon chain.
Carbon compounds can be classified based on their structure and bonding. The document discusses carbon bonding and different types of carbon compounds including hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated or unsaturated, and as alkanes, alkenes or alkynes depending on the presence of single, double or triple carbon-carbon bonds. Functional groups and homologous series are also introduced. Nomenclature of carbon compounds using IUPAC and common systems is explained.
This document discusses alkanes and cycloalkanes. It begins by defining hydrocarbons and alkanes as compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen that contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. It then discusses the structures, naming conventions, properties, sources and synthesis of alkanes. It describes the chair conformations of cyclohexane and envelope conformations of cyclopentane as the most stable. The document also covers constitutional isomers, cis-trans isomers, and how branching affects the physical properties of alkanes like boiling points.
Carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons and has the unique ability to form chains and rings of carbon atoms through catenation. This property allows carbon to form a vast number of compounds through single, double, and triple bonds and structural isomers. Carbon compounds are classified as saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and can undergo combustion reactions.
This document discusses carbon bonding and the formation of carbon compounds. It explains that carbon can form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms through a process called catenation, allowing it to form straight chains, branches, and rings. This bonding ability arises because carbon is tetravalent and can hybridize its orbitals, taking on different hybridization states like sp, sp2, and sp3. Some carbon compounds exhibit resonance, where electrons are delocalized over multiple carbon atoms. This results in more stable structures that are hybrids of different resonant forms. Overall, carbon's unique bonding properties allow it to form a diverse array of stable organic compounds.
This chapter discusses complexation and protein binding in pharmaceuticals. It defines the three classes of complexes as metal ion complexes, organic molecular complexes, and inclusion compounds. It describes the types of interactions that form complexes, such as coordination bonds and van der Waals forces. Metal complexes are discussed in depth, including examples of inorganic complexes like hexamminecobalt(III) chloride and the hybridization of metal orbitals. Chelates are described as complexes where ligands are attached to the same metal ion, conferring properties like chirality. Protein binding can influence drug action and is determined using methods like equilibrium dialysis.
Shapes And Bond Angles Of Simple Organic CompoundsKeri Johnson
The document discusses the structures and bonding in several simple organic compounds and solid materials. It describes:
1) The hybridization of atomic orbitals that gives rise to the tetrahedral structure of methane (CH4) with sp3 hybrid orbitals on carbon and single C-H sigma bonds.
2) The sp2 hybridization in ethene (C2H4) which forms three sp2 hybrid orbitals for C-H and C-C sigma bonds and a perpendicular p orbital for a pi bond between the carbons in the double bond.
3) The delocalized pi bonding and resonance structures in the hexagonal ring structure of benzene.
This document summarizes key concepts in organometallic chemistry. It discusses the definition of organometallic compounds as those containing metal-carbon bonds. It outlines different types of ligands that can bind to metals, including carbonyl, carbene, and cyclic π systems. It also describes principles for understanding bonding interactions between ligands and metals, such as the 18-electron rule and molecular orbital theory. Spectroscopic techniques for analyzing organometallic compounds are also summarized.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers naming conventions and properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular structures. It defines covalent bonds as bonds formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. It explains that molecules are groups of atoms held together by covalent bonds, and that their structures can be represented through chemical formulas, structural diagrams, and Lewis dot diagrams. It provides examples of how to determine the elements and numbers of each from a chemical formula, and how to draw Lewis dot diagrams of molecules by matching atoms to reach full valence shells.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular structures. It defines covalent bonds as bonds formed by shared electron pairs between atoms. It explains that molecules are groups of atoms held together by covalent bonds in a specific ratio and shape. The document discusses drawing Lewis dot structures and molecular diagrams to represent molecules and the bonding between their atoms. It provides examples of drawing the Lewis dot structure for carbon tetrachloride and matching molecular diagrams to chemical formulas.
Carbon has an atomic number of 6 and electronic configuration of 2,4. It requires 4 electrons to achieve the inert gas configuration but cannot form stable ions. Instead, carbon overcomes this issue by forming covalent bonds where it shares its valence electrons with other carbon atoms or other elements. There are three main types of covalent bonds: single, double, and triple bonds which are formed by sharing one, two, or three pairs of electrons respectively. Carbon's ability to form long chains through catenation is due to its property of self-linkage through covalent bonds between identical carbon atoms.
This document provides notes on covalent bonding concepts including:
- The octet rule and how atoms form bonds to gain or lose electrons
- Ionic, covalent, and polar covalent bonds defined by electron transfer and sharing
- Bond polarity determined by electronegativity differences
- Molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular geometry
- Intermolecular forces of dispersion, dipole, and hydrogen bonding explained
This document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structure. It begins by describing ionic and covalent bonding, including how molecular orbitals form through the overlap of atomic orbitals. It then discusses how valence electron Lewis dot structures are used to represent electron distribution in molecules as bond pairs and lone pairs. Rules for constructing Lewis structures, such as the octet rule, are covered. Exceptions to the octet rule for certain elements are also explained. Finally, the concept of resonance structures and using formal charges to determine the most important Lewis structure are introduced.
Carbon forms covalent bonds and a large number of compounds due to its tetravalency and ability to catenate. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points and are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Carbon-carbon single bonds result in saturated hydrocarbons while double and triple bonds produce unsaturated varieties. Hydrocarbons can be classified as aliphatic or cyclic and aromatic compounds have benzene rings. Functional groups impart specific properties to compounds and change names based on prefixes or suffixes. Soaps and detergents clean through micelle formation, with detergents avoiding hard water scum due to different charged ends.
The document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that binds two atoms together within a molecule. It then discusses the different types of bonds ranked by decreasing bond strength - ionic, covalent, coordinate, hydrogen, and Van der Waals. Ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons from metals to nonmetals. Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The document also discusses bond parameters such as bond length, bond order, bond energy, bond angle, and dipole moment. It introduces concepts such as Lewis structures, formal charge, resonance structures, and hybridization. It concludes with an overview of valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1) Classification of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, functional group compounds, and aromatic compounds.
2) Isomerism including structural and stereoisomerism.
3) Bonding theories such as hybridization and resonance that explain organic compound structures and properties.
4) Reactions of organic compounds including substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions. Mechanisms such as electrophilic addition, free radical halogenation and the effects of stability and electronic effects are discussed.
The document provides an overview of an introductory organic chemistry course, including key concepts such as:
- Organic molecules are carbon-based and have distinct properties due to carbon-carbon bonding
- Structural formulas are used to represent molecular connectivity but not 3D structure or stereochemistry
- Ethane's tetrahedral geometry is explained by sp3 hybridization of carbon atoms, allowing formation of σ bonds
- Conformations like staggered and eclipsed account for relative energies of ethane structures
This document provides an overview of covalent bonding and molecular compounds. It begins by defining covalent bonds as the sharing of electrons between nonmetals to form molecules. Molecular compounds are groups of atoms joined by covalent bonds. They typically have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. The document then discusses how atoms form single, double and triple covalent bonds to achieve stable electron configurations through electron sharing. Examples are provided to illustrate how covalent bonds form in molecules like H2, NH3, HCN and CO2. The nature of coordinate covalent bonds is also explained. Finally, molecular orbital theory and VSEPR theory are introduced as models for describing covalent bonding at the molecular level.
This document discusses isomers and organic compound structure. It begins by explaining that organic molecules can be described at different structural levels, from molecular formula to configuration. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different connectivity are called constitutional isomers. It also discusses condensed and bond-line structural formulas as shortcuts. The document goes on to cover resonance structures and how delocalized electrons lead to resonance hybrids rather than discrete structures. It concludes by discussing molecular geometries based on valence shell electron pair repulsion theory and how to determine a molecule's dipole moment from its structure.
Visual Style and Aesthetics: Basics of Visual Design
Visual Design for Enterprise Applications
Range of Visual Styles.
Mobile Interfaces:
Challenges and Opportunities of Mobile Design
Approach to Mobile Design
Patterns
Carbon compounds can be classified based on their structure and bonding. The document discusses carbon bonding and different types of carbon compounds including hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are classified as saturated or unsaturated, and as alkanes, alkenes or alkynes depending on the presence of single, double or triple carbon-carbon bonds. Functional groups and homologous series are also introduced. Nomenclature of carbon compounds using IUPAC and common systems is explained.
This document discusses alkanes and cycloalkanes. It begins by defining hydrocarbons and alkanes as compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen that contain only carbon-carbon single bonds. It then discusses the structures, naming conventions, properties, sources and synthesis of alkanes. It describes the chair conformations of cyclohexane and envelope conformations of cyclopentane as the most stable. The document also covers constitutional isomers, cis-trans isomers, and how branching affects the physical properties of alkanes like boiling points.
Carbon forms covalent bonds by sharing electrons and has the unique ability to form chains and rings of carbon atoms through catenation. This property allows carbon to form a vast number of compounds through single, double, and triple bonds and structural isomers. Carbon compounds are classified as saturated or unsaturated hydrocarbons and can undergo combustion reactions.
This document discusses carbon bonding and the formation of carbon compounds. It explains that carbon can form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms through a process called catenation, allowing it to form straight chains, branches, and rings. This bonding ability arises because carbon is tetravalent and can hybridize its orbitals, taking on different hybridization states like sp, sp2, and sp3. Some carbon compounds exhibit resonance, where electrons are delocalized over multiple carbon atoms. This results in more stable structures that are hybrids of different resonant forms. Overall, carbon's unique bonding properties allow it to form a diverse array of stable organic compounds.
This chapter discusses complexation and protein binding in pharmaceuticals. It defines the three classes of complexes as metal ion complexes, organic molecular complexes, and inclusion compounds. It describes the types of interactions that form complexes, such as coordination bonds and van der Waals forces. Metal complexes are discussed in depth, including examples of inorganic complexes like hexamminecobalt(III) chloride and the hybridization of metal orbitals. Chelates are described as complexes where ligands are attached to the same metal ion, conferring properties like chirality. Protein binding can influence drug action and is determined using methods like equilibrium dialysis.
Shapes And Bond Angles Of Simple Organic CompoundsKeri Johnson
The document discusses the structures and bonding in several simple organic compounds and solid materials. It describes:
1) The hybridization of atomic orbitals that gives rise to the tetrahedral structure of methane (CH4) with sp3 hybrid orbitals on carbon and single C-H sigma bonds.
2) The sp2 hybridization in ethene (C2H4) which forms three sp2 hybrid orbitals for C-H and C-C sigma bonds and a perpendicular p orbital for a pi bond between the carbons in the double bond.
3) The delocalized pi bonding and resonance structures in the hexagonal ring structure of benzene.
This document summarizes key concepts in organometallic chemistry. It discusses the definition of organometallic compounds as those containing metal-carbon bonds. It outlines different types of ligands that can bind to metals, including carbonyl, carbene, and cyclic π systems. It also describes principles for understanding bonding interactions between ligands and metals, such as the 18-electron rule and molecular orbital theory. Spectroscopic techniques for analyzing organometallic compounds are also summarized.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers nomenclature rules for naming organic compounds.
This document discusses organic compounds and their functional groups. It begins by introducing families of organic compounds and noting that they can be grouped by their common structural features. It then focuses on describing various functional groups, including their structures, properties, and common reactions. Specific functional groups discussed include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, alcohols, ethers, amines, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and esters. The document also covers naming conventions and properties of alkanes and cycloalkanes.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular structures. It defines covalent bonds as bonds formed by the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. It explains that molecules are groups of atoms held together by covalent bonds, and that their structures can be represented through chemical formulas, structural diagrams, and Lewis dot diagrams. It provides examples of how to determine the elements and numbers of each from a chemical formula, and how to draw Lewis dot diagrams of molecules by matching atoms to reach full valence shells.
This document discusses covalent bonding and molecular structures. It defines covalent bonds as bonds formed by shared electron pairs between atoms. It explains that molecules are groups of atoms held together by covalent bonds in a specific ratio and shape. The document discusses drawing Lewis dot structures and molecular diagrams to represent molecules and the bonding between their atoms. It provides examples of drawing the Lewis dot structure for carbon tetrachloride and matching molecular diagrams to chemical formulas.
Carbon has an atomic number of 6 and electronic configuration of 2,4. It requires 4 electrons to achieve the inert gas configuration but cannot form stable ions. Instead, carbon overcomes this issue by forming covalent bonds where it shares its valence electrons with other carbon atoms or other elements. There are three main types of covalent bonds: single, double, and triple bonds which are formed by sharing one, two, or three pairs of electrons respectively. Carbon's ability to form long chains through catenation is due to its property of self-linkage through covalent bonds between identical carbon atoms.
This document provides notes on covalent bonding concepts including:
- The octet rule and how atoms form bonds to gain or lose electrons
- Ionic, covalent, and polar covalent bonds defined by electron transfer and sharing
- Bond polarity determined by electronegativity differences
- Molecular polarity based on bond polarity and molecular geometry
- Intermolecular forces of dispersion, dipole, and hydrogen bonding explained
This document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structure. It begins by describing ionic and covalent bonding, including how molecular orbitals form through the overlap of atomic orbitals. It then discusses how valence electron Lewis dot structures are used to represent electron distribution in molecules as bond pairs and lone pairs. Rules for constructing Lewis structures, such as the octet rule, are covered. Exceptions to the octet rule for certain elements are also explained. Finally, the concept of resonance structures and using formal charges to determine the most important Lewis structure are introduced.
Carbon forms covalent bonds and a large number of compounds due to its tetravalency and ability to catenate. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points and are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Carbon-carbon single bonds result in saturated hydrocarbons while double and triple bonds produce unsaturated varieties. Hydrocarbons can be classified as aliphatic or cyclic and aromatic compounds have benzene rings. Functional groups impart specific properties to compounds and change names based on prefixes or suffixes. Soaps and detergents clean through micelle formation, with detergents avoiding hard water scum due to different charged ends.
The document discusses chemical bonding and molecular structures. It begins by defining a chemical bond as the force that binds two atoms together within a molecule. It then discusses the different types of bonds ranked by decreasing bond strength - ionic, covalent, coordinate, hydrogen, and Van der Waals. Ionic bonds form through the transfer of electrons from metals to nonmetals. Covalent bonds form through the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. The document also discusses bond parameters such as bond length, bond order, bond energy, bond angle, and dipole moment. It introduces concepts such as Lewis structures, formal charge, resonance structures, and hybridization. It concludes with an overview of valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory.
This document provides an overview of organic chemistry concepts including:
1) Classification of organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, functional group compounds, and aromatic compounds.
2) Isomerism including structural and stereoisomerism.
3) Bonding theories such as hybridization and resonance that explain organic compound structures and properties.
4) Reactions of organic compounds including substitution, addition, elimination, and oxidation reactions. Mechanisms such as electrophilic addition, free radical halogenation and the effects of stability and electronic effects are discussed.
The document provides an overview of an introductory organic chemistry course, including key concepts such as:
- Organic molecules are carbon-based and have distinct properties due to carbon-carbon bonding
- Structural formulas are used to represent molecular connectivity but not 3D structure or stereochemistry
- Ethane's tetrahedral geometry is explained by sp3 hybridization of carbon atoms, allowing formation of σ bonds
- Conformations like staggered and eclipsed account for relative energies of ethane structures
This document provides an overview of covalent bonding and molecular compounds. It begins by defining covalent bonds as the sharing of electrons between nonmetals to form molecules. Molecular compounds are groups of atoms joined by covalent bonds. They typically have lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. The document then discusses how atoms form single, double and triple covalent bonds to achieve stable electron configurations through electron sharing. Examples are provided to illustrate how covalent bonds form in molecules like H2, NH3, HCN and CO2. The nature of coordinate covalent bonds is also explained. Finally, molecular orbital theory and VSEPR theory are introduced as models for describing covalent bonding at the molecular level.
This document discusses isomers and organic compound structure. It begins by explaining that organic molecules can be described at different structural levels, from molecular formula to configuration. Compounds with the same molecular formula but different connectivity are called constitutional isomers. It also discusses condensed and bond-line structural formulas as shortcuts. The document goes on to cover resonance structures and how delocalized electrons lead to resonance hybrids rather than discrete structures. It concludes by discussing molecular geometries based on valence shell electron pair repulsion theory and how to determine a molecule's dipole moment from its structure.
Visual Style and Aesthetics: Basics of Visual Design
Visual Design for Enterprise Applications
Range of Visual Styles.
Mobile Interfaces:
Challenges and Opportunities of Mobile Design
Approach to Mobile Design
Patterns
Decormart Studio is widely recognized as one of the best interior designers in Bangalore, known for their exceptional design expertise and ability to create stunning, functional spaces. With a strong focus on client preferences and timely project delivery, Decormart Studio has built a solid reputation for their innovative and personalized approach to interior design.
EASY TUTORIAL OF HOW TO USE CAPCUT BY: FEBLESS HERNANEFebless Hernane
CapCut is an easy-to-use video editing app perfect for beginners. To start, download and open CapCut on your phone. Tap "New Project" and select the videos or photos you want to edit. You can trim clips by dragging the edges, add text by tapping "Text," and include music by selecting "Audio." Enhance your video with filters and effects from the "Effects" menu. When you're happy with your video, tap the export button to save and share it. CapCut makes video editing simple and fun for everyone!
International Upcycling Research Network advisory board meeting 4Kyungeun Sung
Slides used for the International Upcycling Research Network advisory board 4 (last one). The project is based at De Montfort University in Leicester, UK, and funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council.
Revolutionizing the Digital Landscape: Web Development Companies in Indiaamrsoftec1
Discover unparalleled creativity and technical prowess with India's leading web development companies. From custom solutions to e-commerce platforms, harness the expertise of skilled developers at competitive prices. Transform your digital presence, enhance the user experience, and propel your business to new heights with innovative solutions tailored to your needs, all from the heart of India's tech industry.
PDF SubmissionDigital Marketing Institute in NoidaPoojaSaini954651
https://www.safalta.com/online-digital-marketing/advance-digital-marketing-training-in-noidaTop Digital Marketing Institute in Noida: Boost Your Career Fast
[3:29 am, 30/05/2024] +91 83818 43552: Safalta Digital Marketing Institute in Noida also provides advanced classes for individuals seeking to develop their expertise and skills in this field. These classes, led by industry experts with vast experience, focus on specific aspects of digital marketing such as advanced SEO strategies, sophisticated content creation techniques, and data-driven analytics.
Architectural and constructions management experience since 2003 including 18 years located in UAE.
Coordinate and oversee all technical activities relating to architectural and construction projects,
including directing the design team, reviewing drafts and computer models, and approving design
changes.
Organize and typically develop, and review building plans, ensuring that a project meets all safety and
environmental standards.
Prepare feasibility studies, construction contracts, and tender documents with specifications and
tender analyses.
Consulting with clients, work on formulating equipment and labor cost estimates, ensuring a project
meets environmental, safety, structural, zoning, and aesthetic standards.
Monitoring the progress of a project to assess whether or not it is in compliance with building plans
and project deadlines.
Attention to detail, exceptional time management, and strong problem-solving and communication
skills are required for this role.
Storytelling For The Web: Integrate Storytelling in your Design ProcessChiara Aliotta
In this slides I explain how I have used storytelling techniques to elevate websites and brands and create memorable user experiences. You can discover practical tips as I showcase the elements of good storytelling and its applied to some examples of diverse brands/projects..
Practical eLearning Makeovers for EveryoneBianca Woods
Welcome to Practical eLearning Makeovers for Everyone. In this presentation, we’ll take a look at a bunch of easy-to-use visual design tips and tricks. And we’ll do this by using them to spruce up some eLearning screens that are in dire need of a new look.
Maximize Your Content with Beautiful Assets : Content & Asset for Landing Page pmgdscunsri
Figma is a cloud-based design tool widely used by designers for prototyping, UI/UX design, and real-time collaboration. With features such as precision pen tools, grid system, and reusable components, Figma makes it easy for teams to work together on design projects. Its flexibility and accessibility make Figma a top choice in the digital age.
Explore the essential graphic design tools and software that can elevate your creative projects. Discover industry favorites and innovative solutions for stunning design results.
2. 15-2
Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of
Organic Molecules
15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules
3. 15-3
Bonding Properties of Carbon
• Carbon forms covalent bonds in all its elemental forms
and compounds.
– The ground state electron configuration of C is [He]2s22p2; the
formation of carbon ions is therefore energetically unfavorable.
– C has an electronegativity of 2.5, which is midway between that
of most metals and nonmetals. C prefers to share electrons.
• Carbon exhibits catenation, the ability to bond to itself
and form stable chain, ring, and branched compounds.
– The small size of the C atom allows it to form short, strong
bonds.
– The tetrahedral shape of the C atom allows catenation.
5. 15-5
Comparison of Carbon and Silicon
• As atomic size increases down the group, bonds
between identical atoms become longer and weaker.
– A C–C bond is much stronger than a Si–Si bond.
• The bond energies of a C–C bond, a C–O bond, and a
C–Cl bond are very similar.
– C compounds can undergo a variety of reactions and remain
stable, while Si compounds cannot.
• Si has low energy d orbitals available for reaction,
allowing Si compounds to be more reactive than C
compounds.
6. 15-6
Diversity and Reactivity of Organic Molecules
• Many organic compounds contain heteroatoms, atoms
other than C and H.
– The most common of these are O, N, and the halogens.
• Most reactions involve the interaction of electron rich
area in one molecule with an electron poor site in
another.
– C–C bonds and C–H bonds tend to be unreactive.
– Bonds between C and a heteroatom are usually polar, creating
an imbalance in electron density and providing a site for
reactions to occur.
8. 15-8
Carbon Skeletons
Each C atom can form a maximum of 4 bonds.
Groups joined by a single bond can rotate, so there are
often several different arrangements of a given carbon
skeleton that are equivalent:
10. 15-10
Drawing Carbon Skeletons
Each C atom can form a maximum of four bonds.
These may be four single bonds, OR one double and two single bonds,
OR one triple and one single bond.
The arrangement of C atoms determines the skeleton, so a
straight chain and a bent chain represent the same
skeleton.
Groups joined by a single bond can rotate freely, so a
branch pointing down is the same as one point up.
11. 15-11
Figure 15.4 Adding the H-atom skin to the C-atom skeleton.
A C atom single-bonded to one
other atom gets three H atoms.
A C atom single-bonded to two
other atoms gets two H atoms.
A C atom single-bonded to three
other atoms gets one H atom. A C atom single-bonded to four other atoms
is already fully bonded (no H atoms).
12. 15-12
Figure 15.4 continued
A double-bonded C atom is
treated as if it were bonded to
two other atoms.
A double- and single-bonded C
atom or a triple-bonded C atom is
treated as if it were bonded to three
other atoms.
13. 15-13
Sample Problem 15.1 Drawing Hydrocarbons
PLAN: In each case, we draw the longest carbon chain first and
then work down to smaller chains with branches at
different points along them. Then we add H atoms to give
each C a total of four bonds.
PROBLEM: Draw structures that have different atom arrangements
for hydrocarbons with
(a) Six C atoms, no multiple bonds, and no rings
(b) Four C atoms, one double bond, and no rings
(c) Four C atoms, no multiple bonds, and one ring
17. 15-17
Alkanes
Hydrocarbons contain only C and H.
Alkanes are hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds
and are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons.
The general formula for an alkane is CnH2n+2, where n is
any positive integer.
Alkanes comprise a homologous series, a group of
compounds in which each member differs from the next by
a –CH2– group.
18. 15-18
Naming Organic Compounds
The root name of the compound is determined from the
number of C atoms in the longest continuous chain.
The name of any organic compound is comprised of three
portions:
PREFIX + ROOT + SUFFIX
The prefix identifies any groups attached to the main
chain.
The suffix indicates the type of organic compound, and is
placed after the root.
The suffix for an alkane is –ane.
19. 15-19
Table 15.1 Numerical Roots for Carbon Chains and Branches
Roots Number of C
Atoms
meth- 1
eth- 2
prop- 3
but- 4
pent- 5
hex- 6
hept- 7
oct- 8
non- 9
dec- 10
24. 15-24
Constitutional Isomers
Constitutional or structural isomers have the same
molecular formula but a different arrangement of the
bonded atoms.
A straight-chain alkane may have many branched
structural isomers.
Structural isomers are different compounds and have
different properties.
If the isomers contain the same functional groups, their properties
will still be similar.
26. 15-26
Figure 15.7 Formulas, molar masses (in g/mol), structures, and
boiling points (at 1 atm pressure) of the first 10
unbranched alkanes.
Alkanes are nonpolar and their physical properties are
determined by the dispersion forces between their molecules.
27. 15-27
Chiral Molecules
Stereoisomers are molecules with the same arrangement
of atoms but different orientations of groups in space.
Optical isomers are mirror images of each other that
cannot be superimposed.
A molecule must be asymmetric in order to exist as a pair
of optical isomers. An asymmetric molecule is termed
chiral.
Typically, a carbon atom is a chiral center if it is bonded to four different
groups.
28. 15-28
Figure 15.8 An analogy for optical isomers.
If two compounds are mirror images of each other that cannot
be superimposed, they are called optical isomers.
29. 15-29
Figure 15.9 Two chiral molecules.
optical isomers of 3-methylhexane optical isomers of alanine
30. 15-30
Optical Activity
Optical isomers have identical physical properties, except
that they rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite
directions.
A chiral compound is optically active; i.e., it rotates the
plane of polarized light.
A compound that rotates the plane of light clockwise is
called dextrorotatory, while a compound that rotates the
plane of light counterclockwise is called levorotatory.
In their chemical properties, optical isomers differ only in
a chiral (asymmetric) environment.
31. 15-31
Figure 15.10 The rotation of plane-polarized light by an optically
active substance.
32. 15-32
Figure 15.11 The binding site of an enzyme.
An enzyme provides a chiral environment and therefore distinguishes
one optical isomer from another. The shape of one optical isomer fits the
binding site, but the mirror image shape of the other isomer does not.
33. 15-33
Naproxen
Many drugs are chiral molecules. One optical isomer has a
certain biological activity while the other has a different type of
activity or none at all.
34. 15-34
Alkenes
A hydrocarbon that contains at least one C=C bond is
called an alkene.
Alkenes are unsaturated and have the general formula
CnH2n.
To name an alkene, the root name is determined by the
number of C atoms in the longest chain that also
contains the double bond.
The C chain is numbered from the end closest to the double bond.
The suffix for alkenes is –ene.
35. 15-35
Geometric Isomers
The double bond of an alkene restricts rotation, so that
the relative positions of the atoms attached to the double
bond are fixed.
Alkenes may exist as geometric or cis-trans isomers,
which differ in the orientation of the groups attached to
the double bond.
Geometric isomers have different physical properties.
37. 15-37
Figure 15.12 The initial chemical event in vision and the change in
the shape of retinal.
38. 15-38
Alkynes
An alkyne is a hydrocarbon that contains at least one
CΞC triple bond.
Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2 and they are
also considred unsaturated carbons.
Alkynes are named in the same way as alkenes, using
the suffix –yne.
39. 15-39
Sample Problem 15.2 Naming Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
PROBLEM: Give the systematic name for each of the following,
indicate the chiral center in part (d), and draw two
geometric isomers for part (e).
PLAN: For (a) to (c), we find the longest continuous chain (root) and
add the suffix –ane because there are only single bonds. Then
we name the branches, numbering the C chain from the end
closest to the first branch. For (d) and (e) the longest chain must
include the double bond.
44. 15-44
Tools of the Laboratory Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
Figure B15.1 The basis of proton spin resonance.
45. 15-45
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.2 The 1H-NMR spectrum of acetone.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
46. 15-46
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.3 The 1H-NMR spectrum of dimethoxymethane.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
47. 15-47
Tools of the Laboratory
Figure B15.4 An MRI scan showing a brain tumor.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy
48. 15-48
Types of Organic Reactions
An addition reaction occurs when an unsaturated reactant
becomes a saturated product:
The C=C, CΞC, and C=O bonds commonly undergo
addition reactions.
In each case, it is the π bond that breaks, leaving the σ bond intact.
50. 15-50
Figure 15.14 A color test for C=C bonds.
This compound has no C=C
bond, so the Br2 does not react.
Br2 (in pipet) reacts with a compound
that has a C=C bond, and the orange-
brown color of Br2 disappears.
51. 15-51
Types of Organic Reactions
An elimination reaction occurs when a saturated reactant
becomes an unsaturated product.
This reaction is the reverse of addition.
The groups typically eliminated are H and a halogen atom
or H and an –OH group.
53. 15-53
Types of Organic Reactions
A substitution reaction occurs when an atom or group
from an added reagent substitutes for one attached to a
carbon in the organic reagent.
The C atom at which substitution may be saturated or
unsaturated, and X and Y can be many different atoms.
55. 15-55
Sample Problem 15.3 Recognizing the Type of Organic
Reaction
PLAN: We determine the type of reaction by looking for any
change in the number of atoms bonded to C.
• An addition reaction results in more atoms bonded to C.
• An elimination reaction results in fewer atoms bonded to C.
• If there are the same number of atoms bonded to C, the
reaction is a substitution.
PROBLEM: State whether each reaction is an addition, elimination,
or substitution:
56. 15-56
Sample Problem 15.3
SOLUTION:
This is an elimination reaction; two bonds in the reactant, C–H and
C –Br, are absent in the product.
This is an addition reaction; two more C–H bonds have formed in the
product.
This is a substitution reaction; the reactant C–Br bond has been
replaced by a C–O bond in the product.
57. 15-57
Functional Groups
Organic compounds are classified according to their
functional groups, a group of atoms bonded in a
particular way.
The functional groups in a compound determine both its
physical properties and its chemical reactivity.
Functional groups affect the polarity of a compound, and therefore
determine the intermolecular forces it exhibits.
Functional groups define the regions of high and low electron density in
a compound, thus determining its reactivity.
60. 15-60
Alcohols
The alcohol functional group consists of a carbon bonded
to an –OH group.
Alcohols are named by replacing the –e at the end of the
parent hydrocarbon name with the suffix –ol.
Alcohols have high melting and boiling points since they
can form hydrogen bonds between their molecules.
63. 15-63
Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes or alkyl halides contain a halogen atom
bonded to carbon.
Haloalkanes are named by identifying the halogen with a
prefix on the hydrocarbon name. The C bearing the
halogen must be numbered.
65. 15-65
Figure 15.16 A tetrachlorobiphenyl, one of 209 polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs).
66. 15-66
Amines
The amine functional group contains a N atom.
The systematic name for an amine is formed by dropping
the final –e of the alkane and adding the suffix –amine.
Common names that use the name of the alkyl group
followed by the suffix –amine are also widely used.
67. 15-67
Figure 15.17 General structures of amines.
Amines are classified according to the number of R groups directly
attached to the N atom.
68. 15-68
Figure 15.18 Some biomolecules with the amine functional group.
Lysine (1°
amine)
amino acid found
in proteins
Adenine (1°
amine)
component of
nucleic acids
Epinephrine
(adrenaline; 2° amine)
neurotransmitter in
brain; hormone released
during stress
Cocaine (3°
amine)
brain stimulant;
widely abused drug
69. 15-69
Properties and Reactions of Amines
Primary and secondary amines can form H bonds;
therefore they have higher melting and boiling points than
hydrocarbons or alkyl halides of similar mass.
Amines of low molar mass are fishy smelling, water
soluble, and weakly basic.
Tertiary amines cannot form H bonds between their
molecules because they lack a polar N–H bond.
Amines undergo a variety of reactions, including
substitution reactions.
70. 15-70
Sample Problem 15.4 Predicting the Reactions of Alcohols,
Alkyl Halides, and Amines
PLAN: We first determine the functional group(s) of the reactant(s)
and then examine any inorganic reagent(s) to decide on the
reaction type. Keep in mind that, in general, these functional
groups undergo substitution or elimination.
PROBLEM: Determine the reaction type and predict the product(s)
for each reaction:
71. 15-71
SOLUTION:
Sample Problem 15.4
(a) In this reaction the OH of the NaOH reaction substitutes for the I
in the organic reagent:
(b) This is a substitution reaction:
(c) This is an elimination reaction since acidic Cr2O7
2- is a strong
oxidizing agent:
72. 15-72
Alkenes
Alkenes contain the C=C double bond:
Alkenes typically undergo addition reactions.
The electron-rich double bond is readily attracted to the partially
positive H atoms of H3O+ ions and hydrohalic acids.
73. 15-73
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Benzene is an aromatic hydrocarbon and is a resonance
hybrid. Its p bond electrons are delocalized.
Aromatic compounds are unusually stable and although
they contain double bonds they undergo substitution rather
than addition reactions.
74. 15-74
Figure 15.19 The stability of benzene.
Benzene releases less energy
during hydrogenation than expected,
because it is already much more
stable than a similar imaginary
alkene.
75. 15-75
Aldehydes and Ketones
Aldehydes and ketones both contain the carbonyl
group, C=O.
Aldehydes are named by replacing the final –e of the
alkane name with the suffix –al.
Ketones have the suffix –one and the position of the
carbonyl must always be indicated.
R and R′ indicate
hydrocarbon groups.
76. 15-76
Figure 15.20 Some common aldehydes and ketones.
Methanal (formaldehyde) Used
to make resins in plywood,
dishware, countertops;
biological preservative
Ethanal (acetaldehyde)
Narcotic product of ethanol
metabolism; used to make
perfumes, flavors, plastics,
other chemicals
2-Propanone (acetone)
Solvent for fat, rubber, plastic,
varnish, lacquer; chemical
feedstock
2-Butanone
(methyl ethyl ketone)
Important solvent
Benzaldehyde
Artificial almond
flavoring
77. 15-77
Figure 15.21 The polar carbonyl group.
The C=O bond is electron rich and is also highly polar. It
readily undergoes addition reactions, and the electron-poor C
atom attracts electron-rich groups.
78. 15-78
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
Reduction to alcohols is an example of an addition reaction:
Organometallic compounds, which have a metal atom
covalently bonded to C, add to the electron-poor carbonyl C:
79. 15-79
Sample Problem 15.5 Predicting the Steps in a Reaction
Sequence
PLAN: For each step we examine the functional group of the
reactant and the reagent above the yield arrow to decide on
the most likely product.
PROBLEM: Fill in the blanks in the following reaction sequence:
SOLUTION: The first step involves an alkyl halide reacting with OH-,
so this is probably a substitution reaction, which yields an
alcohol. In the next step the alcohol is oxidized to a
ketone and finally the organometallic reagent adds to the
ketone to give an alcohol with one more C in its skeleton:
81. 15-81
Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids are named by replacing the –e of the
alkane with the suffix –oic acid.
Carboxylic acids contain the functional group –COOH, or
Carboxylic acids are weak acids in water, and react with
strong bases:
82. 15-82
Figure 15.22 Some molecules with the carboxylic acid functional
group.
Methanoic acid (formic acid)
An irritating component of ant and
bee stings
Butanoic acid (butyric acid)
Odor of rancid butter; suspected
component of monkey sex
attractant
Octadecanoic acid (stearic acid)
Found in animal fats; used in making
candles and soaps
Benzoic acid
Calorimetric standard; used in
preserving food, dyeing fabric,
curing tobacco
83. 15-83
Esters
The ester group is formed by the reaction of an alcohol and a
carboxylic acid.
Ester groups occur commonly in lipids, which are formed by
the esterification of fatty acids.
Esterification is a dehydration-condensation reaction.
84. 15-84
Figure 15.23 Some lipid molecules with the ester functional group.
Cetyl palmitate
The most common
lipid in whale
blubber
Lecithin Phospholipid found in all cell
membranes
Tristearin Typical dietary fat
used as an energy store in
animals
85. 15-85
Saponification
Ester hydrolysis can be carried out using either aqueous
acid or aqueous base. When base is used the process is
called saponification.
This is the process used to make soaps from lipids.
86. 15-86
Amides
An amide contains the functional group:
Amides, like esters, can be hydrolyzed to give a
carboxylic acid and an amine.
The peptide bond, which links amino acids in a protein,
is an amide group.
87. 15-87
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25)
A potent hallucinogen
Figure 15.24 Some molecules with the amide functional group.
N,N-Dimethylmethanamide
(dimethylformamide)
Major organic solvent; used in
production of synthetic fibers
Acetaminophen
Active ingredient in nonaspirin
pain relievers; used to make dyes
and photographic chemicals
88. 15-88
Sample Problem 15.6 Predicting the Reactions of the Carboxylic
Acid Family
PROBLEM: Predict the product(s) of the following reactions:
PLAN: We identify the functional groups in the reactant(s) and see
how they change. In (a), a carboxylic acid reacts with an
alcohol, so the reaction must be a substitution to form an
ester. In (b), an amide reacts with aqueous base, so
hydrolysis occurs.
90. 15-90
Figure 15.25 The formation of carboxylic, phosphoric, and sulfuric
acid anhydrides.
P and S form acids, anhydrides and esters that
are analogous to organic compounds.
91. 15-91
Figure 15.26 A phosphate ester and a sulfonamide.
Glucose-6-phosphate
Sulfanilamide
92. 15-92
Functional Groups with Triple Bonds
Alkynes contain the electron rich –CΞC– group, which
readily undergoes addition reactions:
Nitriles contain the group –CΞN and are made by a
substution reaction of an alkyl halide with CN- (cyanide):
93. 15-93
Sample Problem 15.7
SOLUTION:
Recognizing Functional Groups
PLAN: Use Table 15.5 to identify the various functional groups.
PROBLEM: Circle and name the functional groups in the following molecules:
carboxylic acid
ester
aromatic ring
aromatic ring
alcohol
2° amine
ketone
alkene
haloalkane
94. 15-94
Polymers
Addition polymers, also called chain-growth polymers
form when monomers undergo an addition reaction with
each other.
The monomers of most addition polymers contain an alkene group.
Condensation polymers are formed when monomers link
by a dehydration-condensation type reaction.
The monomers of condensation polymers have two functional groups,
and each monomer can link to two others.
98. 15-98
Figure 15.28 The formation of nylon-66.
Nylon-66 is a condensation polymer,
made by reacting a diacid with a
diamine. The polyamide forms
between the two liquid phases.
99. 15-99
Figure 15.29 The structure of glucose in aqueous solution and the
formation of a disaccharide.