Non-aqueous titration has several advantages over aqueous titration:
1. Organic acids and bases insoluble in water can be soluble in non-aqueous solvents allowing them to be titrated.
2. A non-aqueous solvent may help separate two or more acids in a mixture so they can be titrated individually.
3. More substances can be titrated as the solubility and application ranges are enlarged for weak acids/bases that cannot be titrated in water.
Some common non-aqueous solvents used include acetic acid, acetonitrile, alcohols, DMF. Indicators suitable for specific titrations must be selected to indicate the endpoint
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
The need for non aqueous titration arises because water can behave as a weak base and a weak acid as well, and can hence compete in proton acceptance or proton donation with other weak acids and bases dissolved in it.
Pharmaceutical Inorganic chemistry UNIT-V Radiopharmaceutical.pptx
Isotopes Types of decay
Alpha rays, which could barely penetrate a piece of paper
Beta rays, which could penetrate 3 mm of aluminium
Gamma rays, which could penetrate several centimetres of lead
Units of Radioactivity:
Measurement of Radioactivity
The measurement of nuclear radiation and detection is an important aspect in the identification of type of radiations (, , ) and to assay the radionuclide emitting the radiation, suitable detectors are required. The radiations are identified on the basis of their properties.
e.g. Ionization effect is measured in Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter and Geiger Muller Counter.
The scintillation effect of radiation is measured using scintillation detector and the photographic effect is measured by Autoradiography.
Gas Filled Detectors:
Ionization Chamber:
Proportional Counters:
Geiger-Muller Counter
Properties of α, β, γ radiations
Half –life of Radioelement
Sodium Iodide (I131)
Handling and Storage of Radioactive Material:
Storage of Radioactive Substances –
Precautions For Handling Radioactive Substances
Labelling of Radioactive Substances
Pharmaceutical Application Of Radioactive Substances
The need for non aqueous titration arises because water can behave as a weak base and a weak acid as well, and can hence compete in proton acceptance or proton donation with other weak acids and bases dissolved in it.
Learning objectives
Introduction
Types of solvents
Acidimetry in non aqueous medium
Alkalimetry in non aqueous medium
Estimation of Sodium benzoate and Ephedrine HCl
Applications of non aqueous titrations in pharmacy
Conclusion
Reference
Non Aqueous Titration
Types of solvents used in non aqueous Titration
Compounds used for non aqueous Titration
Titration done for weak acid and weak base,
Non aqueous titration refers to a type of titration in which the analyte substance is dissolved in a solvent which does not contain water. This procedure is a very important one in pharmacopoeial assays.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Students, digital devices and success - Andreas Schleicher - 27 May 2024..pptxEduSkills OECD
Andreas Schleicher presents at the OECD webinar ‘Digital devices in schools: detrimental distraction or secret to success?’ on 27 May 2024. The presentation was based on findings from PISA 2022 results and the webinar helped launch the PISA in Focus ‘Managing screen time: How to protect and equip students against distraction’ https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/managing-screen-time_7c225af4-en and the OECD Education Policy Perspective ‘Students, digital devices and success’ can be found here - https://oe.cd/il/5yV
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
How to Create Map Views in the Odoo 17 ERPCeline George
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How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
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How to Split Bills in the Odoo 17 POS ModuleCeline George
Bills have a main role in point of sale procedure. It will help to track sales, handling payments and giving receipts to customers. Bill splitting also has an important role in POS. For example, If some friends come together for dinner and if they want to divide the bill then it is possible by POS bill splitting. This slide will show how to split bills in odoo 17 POS.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
2. Titration in water solutions is limited by factors:
It is impossible to titrate for a mix of acids or the bases
It is impossible to titrate for a mix of strong and weak
acids (bases)
It is impossible to titrate separately for a mix of acids
(bases) with near constants of dissociation
It is impossible to define substances which are insoluble
in water.
3. Non-aqueous titrations have the following
advantages
Organic acids and bases that are insoluble in water are soluble in non-
aqueous solvent.
A non-aqueous solvent may help two are more acids in mixture. The
individual acid can give separate end point in different solvent.
Enlargement of solubility range: many substances that are not soluble
in water can be easily titrated in water-free media (e.g. fats and oils)
Enlargement of application range: weak bases and acids can be easily
titrated
Substance compositions that cannot be separately determined in
aqueous media can often be titrated in non-aqueous media
Non-aqueous solvents are useful for the titration of very weak acids or
bases that cannot be titrated in water
Non aqueous titrations are simple and accurate, examples of non
aqueous titration are :
Ephedrine preparations, codeine phosphate in APC, tetracycline,
teramycin, Anti- histamines and various piprazine preparations.
4. • Solvent which are used in non aqueous titration are called
non aqueous solvent.
• They are following types:-
1. Aprotic Solvent
2. Protogenic Solvent
3. Protophillic Solvent
4. Amphiprotic Solvent
5. • Aprotic solvent are most important solvent in this titration. This solvent are
chemically inert and they work as a catalyst. Like this solvent are increase
the rate of speed in reaction and also decrease the rate of speed in reaction
during the chemical process or reaction it will depend on condition.
• Neither acidic nor basic (inert solvent),
The most important examples of aprotic solvent are
• Chloroform
• Benzene
6. Protogenic solvent are acidic in nature. And they
can donate the proton, and they enhance the
strength of weak bases.
Examples of Protogenic solvent are
HCL
H2so4
7. Protophillic solvent are basic in nature. Which
possess a high affinity for proton.
Examples:-Liquid ammonia, amines and ketone.
8. Amphiprotic solvent are those solvent they work
as a both mean Protogenic or Protophillic. It
means Amphiprotic solvent are acidic and basic in
nature. And they are accept the proton and donate
the proton.
For examples:- Water, Alcohols and weak organic
acids
9. • Visual indicator are formed to the most suitable for the detection
of end point in non-aqueous titration.
• The important indicator used for non-aqueous titration are
follow:-
1. Crystal voilet:- It is used as 0.5% solution in glacial acetic
acid, it gives voilet colour in basic medium and yellowish
green in acidic medium.
• It is most widely use for the titration of pyridine with
prechloride acid.
2. Oracet Blue B Indicator:- It is prepared o.5% glacial acetic
acid. It gives blue colour in basic medium while pink
colour in acidic medium.
10. Acetic acid used for titration of weak bases,
Nitrogen containing compounds
Acetonitrile / with ACOH: Metal ethanoates
Alcohols (IPA, nBA) : Soaps and salts of organic
acids,
DMF: Benzoic acid, amides etc
11. Perchloric acid in acetic acid
◦ Amines, amine salts, amino acids, salts of acids
Potassium Methoxide in Toluene-Methanol
Quan ammonium hydroxide in Acetonitrile-
pyridine
◦ Acids, enols, imides & sulphonamides
12. Acidimetry in Non-aqueous Titrations—It can
be further sub-divided into two heads, namely :
(i) Titration of primary, secondary and tertiary amines,
and
(ii) Titration of halogen acid salts of bases.
Alkalimetry in Non-aqueous Titrations—
titration of acidic substances
13. Example : Primary amines
METHODOLOGY: four steps
(i) Preparation of 0.1 N Perchloric acid,
(ii) Standardization of 0.1 N Perchloric Acid,
(iii) Choice of Indicators, and
(iv) Effect of Temperature on Assays
14. Materials Required : 8.5 ml of perchloric acid (70.0 to 72.0%)
; 1 Litre of glacial acetic acid ; 30ml of acetic anhydride.
Procedure : Gradually mix 8.5 ml of perchloric acid to 900 ml
of glacial acetic acid with vigorous and continuous stirring. Now
add 30 ml acetic anhydride and make up the volume to 1 litre
with glacialacetic acid and allow to stand for 24 hours before
use.
The acetic anhydride reacts with the water (approx. 30%) in
perchloric acid and some traces in glacialacetic acid thereby
making the resulting mixture practically anhydrous. Thus, we
have :
H2O + (CH3CO)2O → 2CH3COOH
Acetic anhydride Acetic acid
15. Weigh accurately about 0.5 g of potassium hydrogen
phthalate in a 100 ml conical flask.
Add 25 ml of glacial acetic acid and attach a reflux
condenser fitted with a silica-gel drying tube. Warm until
the salt gets dissolved completely. Cool and titrate with
0.1 N perchloric acid by making use of either of
the following two indicators :
(a) acetous crystal violet-2 drops, end point Blue to
Blue-Green (0.5% w/v)
(b) acetous oracet blue B-2 drops, end point Blue to
Pink.
16. S.No. Name of Indicator Colorchange
Basic
Observed
Neutral
Acidic
1
2
3
4
Crystal violet (0.5% w/v
in glacial acetic acid)
Oracet Blue B(0.5% in
glacial acetic acid)
α-Naphtholbenzein
(0.2% in glacial acetic
acid
Quinalidine Red
(0.1% in methanol
Violet
Blue
Blue
Magenta
Bluish
green
Purple
Orange
—
Yellowish
green
Pink
Dark-
green
Almost
colourless
17. (a) Perchloric acid is usually available as a 70 to 72% mixture with
water .It usually undergoes a spontaneous explosive decomposition
and, therefore, it is available always in the form of a solution.
(b) Conversion of acetic anhydride to acetic acid requires 40-45
minutes for its completion. It being an exothermic reaction, the solution
must be allowed to cool to room temperature before adding glacial
acetic acid to volume,
(c) Avoid adding an excess of acetic anhydride especially when
primary and secondary amines are to be assayed, because these may
be converted rapidly to their corresponding acetylated non-basic
products :
R—NH2 + (CH3CO)2O → R.NH.(CH3CO) + CH3COOH
Primary amine Acetylated product
(d) Perchloric acid is not only a powerful oxidising agent but also a
strong acid. Hence, it must be handled very carefully.
19. Preparation of 0.1 N Potassium Methoxide in Toluene-Methanol
Materials Required: Absolute methanol : 40 ml ; dry toluene : 50 ml ; potassium
metal : 4 g.
Procedure: Add into a dry flask, a mixture of methanol (40 ml) and dry toluene
(50 ml) and cover it loosely. Carefully add freshly cut pieces of potassium
metal to the above mixture gradually with constant shaking. After complete
dissolution of potassium metal, add enough absolute methanol to yield a clear
solution. Toluene 50 ml is added with constant shaking until the mixture turns hazy
in appearance. The process is repeated by the alternate addition of methanol and
benzene until 1 litre of solution is obtained, taking care to add a minimum volume of
methanol to give a visible clear solution.
20. Preparation of 0.1 N Sodiun Methoxide
It is prepared exactly in a similar manner as for 0.1 N Potassium Methoxide, using 2.3 g of freshly-cut sodium in
place of potassium.
Preparation of 0.1 N Lithium Methoxide
It is prepared as for 0.1 N Potassium Methoxide, but using 0.7 g of lithium in place of potassium.
Standardization of 0.1 N Methoxide Solution
Materials Required: Dimethylformamide (DMF) : 10 ml ; Thymol blue (0.3% in MeOH) ; 0.1 N lithium
methoxide in toluene methanol ; benzoic acid : 0.6 g.
Procedure : Transfer 10 ml of DMF in a conical flask and add to it 3 to 4 drops of thymol blue and first
neutralize the acidic impurities present in DMF by titrating with 0.1 N lithium Methoxide in toluene-methanol.
Quickly introduce 0.06 g of benzoic acid and titrate immediately with Methoxide in toluene methanol.
Caution: Care must be taken to avoid contamination of neutralized liquid with atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
Na + CH3
OH → CH3
ONa + H ↑
Interaction between sodium metal and methanol is an exothermic reaction and hence, special care must be taken
while adding the metal into the dry solvent in small lots at intervals with adequate cooling so as to keep the
reaction well under control.
H2
O + CH3
ONa → CH3
OH + NaoH
H2
CO3
+ 2CH3
ONa → 2CH3
OH + Na2
CO3
21. Preparation of 0.1 N Tetrabutylammonium Hydroxide in Toluene-Methanol
Materials Required: Tetrabutylammonium iodide : 40 g ; absolute methanol : 90 ml ; silver oxide : 25
g ; dry toluene : 150 ml.
Procedure: Carefully dissolve 40 g of tetrabutylammonium iodide (Bu4NI) in 90 ml of absolute
methanol, add to it 20 g of finely powdered purified silver oxide and finally shake the mixture
thoroughly for 1 hour. Centrifuge about 2-3 ml of the resultant mixture and test for iodide in the
supernatant liquid. In case, it gives a positive test, add about 2 g more of silver oxide and shake for an
additional period of 30 minutes. The said method may be repeated until the supernatant liquid obtained
is completely free from iodide. The mixture thus obtained is filtered through a fine sintered glass filter
and finally rinse the container with 3 portions, each of 50 ml of dry toluene. These washings may be
added to the filtrate and the final volume is made up to 1 litre with dry toluene. The clear solution may
be flushed with CO2-free nitrogen for at least five minutes and duly protected from both CO2 and
moisture during storage.
2Bu4
NI + Ag2
O + H2
O → 2Bu4
NOH + 2AgI
Tetrabutyl- Tetrabutyl ammonium
ammonium bromide hydroxide
22. Standardization of 0.1 N Tetrabutylammonium Hydroxide
Materials Required : Benzoic acid : 60 mg ; dimethylbromide : 10 ml ;
thymol blue solution (0.3% w/v in methanol) ; 0.1 N tetrabutylammonium
hydroxide.
Procedure: Accurately weigh about 60 mg of benzoic acid into 10 ml of
previously neutralized Dimethyl formamide to the blue colour of thymol blue
(3 drops) by titration against 0.1 N tetrabutylammonium hydroxide. Allow
the benzoic acid to dissolve gradually and completely and titrate with 0.1 N
tetrabutylammonium hydroxide.
0.01221 g C7H6O2 ≡ 1 ml of 0.1 N