The document discusses the classification and structure of muscles. Muscles are classified in three ways: based on the presence or absence of striations into striated and non-striated muscles, based on control into voluntary and involuntary muscles, and based on location into skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles. The skeletal muscle fiber structure is described in detail, including the sarcomere as the basic contractile unit composed of actin and myosin filaments. Muscle excitation and contractility are also summarized.
This document summarizes the key properties and functions of the three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It describes their locations, structures, contraction mechanisms, and functions. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones via tendons to enable movement. Cardiac muscle is also striated and pumps blood throughout the body. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary, found in organs to enable processes like digestion. The document provides detailed descriptions of muscle fibers, sarcomeres, calcium handling, and more.
This document discusses muscles and the muscular system. It begins by defining muscles and describing the various classifications of muscles. The key types are skeletal muscles, which are striated and voluntary. Skeletal muscles have origins, insertions, and bellies. They act to produce movement, maintain posture and support, and generate heat. The document outlines the structure of muscles and their components. It also categorizes muscles based on shape, function, and other characteristics.
Joints are connections between bones that allow movement. There are 230 joints in the body. Joints are classified structurally based on how the bones connect and functionally based on their range of motion. The main types of joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. Synovial joints have the most mobility and include ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Key parts of synovial joints include the articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane, and sometimes articular discs.
Molecular basis of Skeletal Muscle ContractionArulSood2
The ppt aims to explain the molecular basis of skeletal muscle contraction and certain applied aspects of the same. Sources include Guyton and Hall's Textbook of Physiology (South-Asia edition, Vol. 2) and C.L. Ghai's Textbook for Practical Physiology.
This document discusses the structure and function of skeletal muscle. It begins with an introduction to skeletal muscle and then covers topics like muscle fiber structure, development of muscle cells, muscle proteins, the sarcomere, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and excitation-contraction coupling. Diagrams are provided to illustrate muscle fiber anatomy, the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments in the sarcomere, and the relationship between the sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubules. The document provides definitions of key muscle terms and describes the roles of various muscle proteins.
Cartilage and bone are types of connective tissue that provide structure and support. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage - which are located in various parts of the body like joints, ears, and larynx. Cartilage is made of chondrocytes in an extracellular matrix. Bone develops from cartilage through endochondral ossification and forms directly from mesenchymal tissue through intramembranous ossification. Bones have compact bone, spongy bone, and are remodeled through the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Common bone disorders occur due to defects in collagen, calcification, or excessive bone turnover.
The document discusses several key properties and features of nerve fibers:
- Nerve fibers are excitable, conductive, and do not fatigue easily. They conduct all-or-none action potentials and exhibit phenomena like summation and accommodation.
- Nerve fibers have different conduction velocities depending on their type and diameter. Myelination allows for faster conduction.
- When injured, nerve fibers undergo Wallerian degeneration where the distal segment degrades over weeks and the soma attempts repair through axonal sprouting.
This document summarizes the key properties and functions of the three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It describes their locations, structures, contraction mechanisms, and functions. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones via tendons to enable movement. Cardiac muscle is also striated and pumps blood throughout the body. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary, found in organs to enable processes like digestion. The document provides detailed descriptions of muscle fibers, sarcomeres, calcium handling, and more.
This document discusses muscles and the muscular system. It begins by defining muscles and describing the various classifications of muscles. The key types are skeletal muscles, which are striated and voluntary. Skeletal muscles have origins, insertions, and bellies. They act to produce movement, maintain posture and support, and generate heat. The document outlines the structure of muscles and their components. It also categorizes muscles based on shape, function, and other characteristics.
Joints are connections between bones that allow movement. There are 230 joints in the body. Joints are classified structurally based on how the bones connect and functionally based on their range of motion. The main types of joints are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints. Synovial joints have the most mobility and include ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip. Key parts of synovial joints include the articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial membrane, and sometimes articular discs.
Molecular basis of Skeletal Muscle ContractionArulSood2
The ppt aims to explain the molecular basis of skeletal muscle contraction and certain applied aspects of the same. Sources include Guyton and Hall's Textbook of Physiology (South-Asia edition, Vol. 2) and C.L. Ghai's Textbook for Practical Physiology.
This document discusses the structure and function of skeletal muscle. It begins with an introduction to skeletal muscle and then covers topics like muscle fiber structure, development of muscle cells, muscle proteins, the sarcomere, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and excitation-contraction coupling. Diagrams are provided to illustrate muscle fiber anatomy, the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments in the sarcomere, and the relationship between the sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubules. The document provides definitions of key muscle terms and describes the roles of various muscle proteins.
Cartilage and bone are types of connective tissue that provide structure and support. There are three main types of cartilage - hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage - which are located in various parts of the body like joints, ears, and larynx. Cartilage is made of chondrocytes in an extracellular matrix. Bone develops from cartilage through endochondral ossification and forms directly from mesenchymal tissue through intramembranous ossification. Bones have compact bone, spongy bone, and are remodeled through the actions of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Common bone disorders occur due to defects in collagen, calcification, or excessive bone turnover.
The document discusses several key properties and features of nerve fibers:
- Nerve fibers are excitable, conductive, and do not fatigue easily. They conduct all-or-none action potentials and exhibit phenomena like summation and accommodation.
- Nerve fibers have different conduction velocities depending on their type and diameter. Myelination allows for faster conduction.
- When injured, nerve fibers undergo Wallerian degeneration where the distal segment degrades over weeks and the soma attempts repair through axonal sprouting.
Skeletal muscle has electrical and mechanical properties. Electrically, it is excitable and conductive, allowing it to receive and propagate action potentials. Mechanically, it can contract when stimulated, shortenening and developing tension. Skeletal muscle action potentials last 2-4 ms and propagate at 3-5 m/s. Contraction occurs slightly after the electrical response and can be isometric (no shortening) or isotonic (shortening against a load). Force of contraction depends on factors like stimulus strength, frequency, initial muscle length, and temperature.
Joints are classified structurally based on how bones connect and functionally based on degree of movement. Structural types are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. Fibrous joints allow little movement, cartilaginous more than fibrous but less than synovial. Synovial joints have the most mobility and include ball-and-socket, hinge, and gliding joints. Functionally, joints are synarthrosis (no movement), amphiarthrosis (slight movement), and diarthrosis (varied movement like flexion). Key parts of joints are articular cartilage, synovial cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, and ligaments.
The document describes the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It explains that muscle shortening occurs when the actin filament slides over the myosin filament, reducing the distance between Z-lines in the sarcomere. It further describes the roles of calcium ions, tropomyosin, troponin, actin, myosin and ATP in the cross-bridge cycling that enables the sliding filament movement and generates force. It also mentions the all-or-none law, where a muscle fiber will contract fully or not at all in response to an impulse.
Skeletal muscle makes up 40-50% of total body weight and is attached by tendons to bones. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated and striated, have visible banding patterns, and are voluntary muscles under conscious control. Skeletal muscles produce force for locomotion and postural support. Microscopically, skeletal muscle contains myofibrils with thick and thin filaments that slide during muscle contraction and relaxation. Skeletal muscle contraction occurs through summation of motor unit contractions and tetanization at higher stimulation frequencies.
Smooth muscle is non-striated involuntary muscle found throughout the body in organs like the digestive tract, respiratory tract, blood vessels, and reproductive system. It functions to regulate movement and contraction of these structures. Smooth muscle cells are elongated and fusiform in shape, containing contractile proteins like actin and myosin in a non-ordered arrangement. There are two types: single-unit smooth muscle which contracts as a syncytium and is more common, and multi-unit smooth muscle which contracts independently and is innervated by nerves.
Muscles can be classified into three main types: Type-I muscles are slow-twitch fibers suited for endurance activities; Type-IIa muscles are fast-twitch fibers capable of bursts of speed and power; Type-IIb muscles are the fastest twitch fibers but fatigue quickly.
The topic includes:
definition and function bone
classification of bone according to shape, development, region and structure
gross structure of long bone
parts of a bone (epiphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis and epiphysial plate of cartilage)
blood supply of bone
growth of a long bone
Skeletal muscle is composed of fibers that contain myofibrils made up of actin and myosin filaments. The sliding of these filaments causes muscle contraction via the sarcomere, the basic contractile unit. There are three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones to enable movement. Cardiac muscle is exclusively found in the heart walls and has involuntary, rhythmic contractions. Smooth muscle lacks striations and has involuntary, sustained contractions that support functions like digestion.
i've used this note before this for my first year medicine in egypt. Fot those who taking this course(medicine) , I hope it'll give some ideas to you to study about this subject.
Goodluck :) !
three types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Muscle cells are called muscle fibers
Contraction depends on two kinds of Myofilaments
Actin
Myosin
Prefixes to know: myo, mys, or sarco – word relates to muscle
Each muscle is a discrete organ
Muscle Type Overview
Skeletal Muscle tissue
Skeletal
Striated
Voluntary
Cardiac Muscle tissue
Cardiac
Striated
Involuntary
Smooth Muscle tissue
Visceral
Non-striated
Involuntary
Muscle Functions
1. Producing movement
2. Maintaining posture
3. Stabilizing joints
4. Generating heat
Functional Characteristics of Muscles
Excitability (or Irritability) = ability to receive and respond to stimuli
Contractility = ability to shorten forcibly
Extensibility = ability to be stretched or extended beyond resting length
Elasticity = ability to resume resting length after stretchingMuscle (organ)
Fascicle (a portion of the muscle)
Muscle Fiber (a cell)
These levels are supracellular
Connective Tissue Layer
Epimysium
Perimysium
Endomysium
Anatomy of a Muscle
Typical ex. is a skeletal muscle
The following are all subcellular.
Myofibril = or fibril, complex organelle composed of bundles of
myofilaments
Myofilament = macromolecular structure of contractile proteins
Sarcomere = the smallest, single contracting unit of a myofibril, a segment
Gross Anatomy
Deep fascia = binds large groups of muscles into functional groups
Muscle = hundreds of fascicles bound together by epimysium
Fascicle = thousands of muscle fibers bound into discrete units by
perimysium
Muscle fiber = single muscle cell surrounded by endomysium
Generous blood and nerve supply
Microscopic Anatomy of a Muscle Fiber
Muscle Fiber = elongated, cylindrical, multinucleated muscle cell
Sarcolemma = plasma (cell) membrane of a muscle cell
Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of muscle cell with large amounts of glycogen and
The neuromuscular junction is where a motor neuron connects to a muscle fiber. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, calcium enters and causes vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine then binds nicotinic receptors on the muscle fiber, causing sodium entry and developing an endplate potential that can trigger an action potential in the fiber. Acetylcholine is quickly broken down by acetylcholinesterase to allow muscle relaxation. A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the fibers it innervates, so stimulating the neuron causes contraction of those fibers in a graded manner based on recruitment of additional motor units.
The document provides an overview of bone tissue, including its histology, development, shapes, and functions. Bone is a type of connective tissue composed of cells and an organic/inorganic matrix. There are four main types of bone cells that form or break down bone tissue through intricate biological processes. The skeletal system performs critical roles like supporting the body, protecting organs, enabling movement, and maintaining mineral balances in the blood.
Muscle movement plays an important role in day to day life where the contraction and relaxation of muscle is significant. The current slide has been developed with the focus on different phases during muscle contraction and the physiological change involved on it.
Myology is the study of muscles. There are three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, controlling movement. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary, found in organs. Cardiac muscle is striated, involuntary, and branched, found only in the heart. Muscles have an origin, insertion, and action depending on their location. They can be arranged in parallel, pennate, or sphincter formations. Muscles are surrounded by endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium fascia, connecting to bones via tendons.
The document discusses the muscular system and muscle contraction. It describes three types of muscle based on structure: striated (skeletal and cardiac), and non-striated (smooth). Skeletal muscle is voluntarily controlled and attached to bones, cardiac muscle forms the heart, and smooth muscle is associated with visceral organs. Muscle contraction occurs when an action potential spreads into the muscle fiber and causes calcium release, exposing actin binding sites on troponin and initiating the sliding filament model of contraction where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other.
The nervous system is a highly organized network of billions of nerve cells that functions as the control center of the body. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system outside of these. Nerve cells called neurons are specialized to conduct electrical signals called action potentials that allow communication within the nervous system. Neurons have cell bodies and long processes called axons that transmit signals. They communicate with other neurons at junctions called synapses using chemical messenger molecules. The coordinated functions of sensation, integration and response enabled by this neuronal signaling allow the nervous system to monitor and control all bodily functions.
This document discusses the three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It provides details on their characteristics, such as whether they are striated or not, voluntary or involuntary, and their locations and functions in the body. Skeletal muscle is voluntary, attached to bones, and enables movement. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and makes up the heart wall. Smooth muscle is involuntary and located in organs like the stomach.
Connective tissue is one of the primary tissue types and has several important functions including binding and supporting other tissues, protecting organs, insulating the body, storing energy, and transporting substances. There are four main categories of connective tissue - connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood. Connective tissue proper includes loose connective tissue like areolar and adipose tissue, as well as dense connective tissue. Cartilage is a flexible tissue found in joints, ribs, and other structures. Bone tissue forms the skeletal system and is made of both bone tissue and marrow. Blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue composed of blood cells suspended in plasma.
1. Muscle tissue is one of four primary tissue types and is divided into three main categories: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and allows voluntary movement.
2. Skeletal muscle contains bundles of fibers surrounded by connective tissues. Within the fibers are myofibrils composed of thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments that slide past each other to cause muscle contraction.
3. Contraction is triggered when a motor neuron stimulates the neuromuscular junction, causing calcium release and the myosin heads to interact with and pull on the actin filaments. The strength of contraction depends on factors like overlap of filaments and stimulation frequency.
This document summarizes the histology and classification of muscle tissue. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Skeletal muscle is composed of elongated cells with multiple nuclei and striations due to the overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Cardiac muscle cells are branched with central nuclei and intercalated discs. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single central nucleus. The document focuses on the histology and structure of skeletal muscle.
MUSCLE physiology assignment and good notes for examMahiul Karim
Muscles comprise about 40-50% of body weight and are responsible for movement. The core function of muscle is to convert chemical energy into mechanical force, enabling both voluntary and involuntary movement as well as maintaining posture. There are three main types of muscle - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac - classified based on location and control. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones, and its contraction is stimulated by the nervous system. The basic unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere, containing overlapping actin and myosin filaments whose sliding interaction causes muscle contraction.
Skeletal muscle has electrical and mechanical properties. Electrically, it is excitable and conductive, allowing it to receive and propagate action potentials. Mechanically, it can contract when stimulated, shortenening and developing tension. Skeletal muscle action potentials last 2-4 ms and propagate at 3-5 m/s. Contraction occurs slightly after the electrical response and can be isometric (no shortening) or isotonic (shortening against a load). Force of contraction depends on factors like stimulus strength, frequency, initial muscle length, and temperature.
Joints are classified structurally based on how bones connect and functionally based on degree of movement. Structural types are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. Fibrous joints allow little movement, cartilaginous more than fibrous but less than synovial. Synovial joints have the most mobility and include ball-and-socket, hinge, and gliding joints. Functionally, joints are synarthrosis (no movement), amphiarthrosis (slight movement), and diarthrosis (varied movement like flexion). Key parts of joints are articular cartilage, synovial cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, and ligaments.
The document describes the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. It explains that muscle shortening occurs when the actin filament slides over the myosin filament, reducing the distance between Z-lines in the sarcomere. It further describes the roles of calcium ions, tropomyosin, troponin, actin, myosin and ATP in the cross-bridge cycling that enables the sliding filament movement and generates force. It also mentions the all-or-none law, where a muscle fiber will contract fully or not at all in response to an impulse.
Skeletal muscle makes up 40-50% of total body weight and is attached by tendons to bones. Skeletal muscle cells are multinucleated and striated, have visible banding patterns, and are voluntary muscles under conscious control. Skeletal muscles produce force for locomotion and postural support. Microscopically, skeletal muscle contains myofibrils with thick and thin filaments that slide during muscle contraction and relaxation. Skeletal muscle contraction occurs through summation of motor unit contractions and tetanization at higher stimulation frequencies.
Smooth muscle is non-striated involuntary muscle found throughout the body in organs like the digestive tract, respiratory tract, blood vessels, and reproductive system. It functions to regulate movement and contraction of these structures. Smooth muscle cells are elongated and fusiform in shape, containing contractile proteins like actin and myosin in a non-ordered arrangement. There are two types: single-unit smooth muscle which contracts as a syncytium and is more common, and multi-unit smooth muscle which contracts independently and is innervated by nerves.
Muscles can be classified into three main types: Type-I muscles are slow-twitch fibers suited for endurance activities; Type-IIa muscles are fast-twitch fibers capable of bursts of speed and power; Type-IIb muscles are the fastest twitch fibers but fatigue quickly.
The topic includes:
definition and function bone
classification of bone according to shape, development, region and structure
gross structure of long bone
parts of a bone (epiphysis, diaphysis, metaphysis and epiphysial plate of cartilage)
blood supply of bone
growth of a long bone
Skeletal muscle is composed of fibers that contain myofibrils made up of actin and myosin filaments. The sliding of these filaments causes muscle contraction via the sarcomere, the basic contractile unit. There are three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones to enable movement. Cardiac muscle is exclusively found in the heart walls and has involuntary, rhythmic contractions. Smooth muscle lacks striations and has involuntary, sustained contractions that support functions like digestion.
i've used this note before this for my first year medicine in egypt. Fot those who taking this course(medicine) , I hope it'll give some ideas to you to study about this subject.
Goodluck :) !
three types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Muscle cells are called muscle fibers
Contraction depends on two kinds of Myofilaments
Actin
Myosin
Prefixes to know: myo, mys, or sarco – word relates to muscle
Each muscle is a discrete organ
Muscle Type Overview
Skeletal Muscle tissue
Skeletal
Striated
Voluntary
Cardiac Muscle tissue
Cardiac
Striated
Involuntary
Smooth Muscle tissue
Visceral
Non-striated
Involuntary
Muscle Functions
1. Producing movement
2. Maintaining posture
3. Stabilizing joints
4. Generating heat
Functional Characteristics of Muscles
Excitability (or Irritability) = ability to receive and respond to stimuli
Contractility = ability to shorten forcibly
Extensibility = ability to be stretched or extended beyond resting length
Elasticity = ability to resume resting length after stretchingMuscle (organ)
Fascicle (a portion of the muscle)
Muscle Fiber (a cell)
These levels are supracellular
Connective Tissue Layer
Epimysium
Perimysium
Endomysium
Anatomy of a Muscle
Typical ex. is a skeletal muscle
The following are all subcellular.
Myofibril = or fibril, complex organelle composed of bundles of
myofilaments
Myofilament = macromolecular structure of contractile proteins
Sarcomere = the smallest, single contracting unit of a myofibril, a segment
Gross Anatomy
Deep fascia = binds large groups of muscles into functional groups
Muscle = hundreds of fascicles bound together by epimysium
Fascicle = thousands of muscle fibers bound into discrete units by
perimysium
Muscle fiber = single muscle cell surrounded by endomysium
Generous blood and nerve supply
Microscopic Anatomy of a Muscle Fiber
Muscle Fiber = elongated, cylindrical, multinucleated muscle cell
Sarcolemma = plasma (cell) membrane of a muscle cell
Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm of muscle cell with large amounts of glycogen and
The neuromuscular junction is where a motor neuron connects to a muscle fiber. When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, calcium enters and causes vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Acetylcholine then binds nicotinic receptors on the muscle fiber, causing sodium entry and developing an endplate potential that can trigger an action potential in the fiber. Acetylcholine is quickly broken down by acetylcholinesterase to allow muscle relaxation. A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and the fibers it innervates, so stimulating the neuron causes contraction of those fibers in a graded manner based on recruitment of additional motor units.
The document provides an overview of bone tissue, including its histology, development, shapes, and functions. Bone is a type of connective tissue composed of cells and an organic/inorganic matrix. There are four main types of bone cells that form or break down bone tissue through intricate biological processes. The skeletal system performs critical roles like supporting the body, protecting organs, enabling movement, and maintaining mineral balances in the blood.
Muscle movement plays an important role in day to day life where the contraction and relaxation of muscle is significant. The current slide has been developed with the focus on different phases during muscle contraction and the physiological change involved on it.
Myology is the study of muscles. There are three main types of muscle tissue: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, controlling movement. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary, found in organs. Cardiac muscle is striated, involuntary, and branched, found only in the heart. Muscles have an origin, insertion, and action depending on their location. They can be arranged in parallel, pennate, or sphincter formations. Muscles are surrounded by endomysium, perimysium, and epimysium fascia, connecting to bones via tendons.
The document discusses the muscular system and muscle contraction. It describes three types of muscle based on structure: striated (skeletal and cardiac), and non-striated (smooth). Skeletal muscle is voluntarily controlled and attached to bones, cardiac muscle forms the heart, and smooth muscle is associated with visceral organs. Muscle contraction occurs when an action potential spreads into the muscle fiber and causes calcium release, exposing actin binding sites on troponin and initiating the sliding filament model of contraction where actin and myosin filaments slide past each other.
The nervous system is a highly organized network of billions of nerve cells that functions as the control center of the body. It has two main divisions - the central nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system outside of these. Nerve cells called neurons are specialized to conduct electrical signals called action potentials that allow communication within the nervous system. Neurons have cell bodies and long processes called axons that transmit signals. They communicate with other neurons at junctions called synapses using chemical messenger molecules. The coordinated functions of sensation, integration and response enabled by this neuronal signaling allow the nervous system to monitor and control all bodily functions.
This document discusses the three types of muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It provides details on their characteristics, such as whether they are striated or not, voluntary or involuntary, and their locations and functions in the body. Skeletal muscle is voluntary, attached to bones, and enables movement. Cardiac muscle is involuntary and makes up the heart wall. Smooth muscle is involuntary and located in organs like the stomach.
Connective tissue is one of the primary tissue types and has several important functions including binding and supporting other tissues, protecting organs, insulating the body, storing energy, and transporting substances. There are four main categories of connective tissue - connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood. Connective tissue proper includes loose connective tissue like areolar and adipose tissue, as well as dense connective tissue. Cartilage is a flexible tissue found in joints, ribs, and other structures. Bone tissue forms the skeletal system and is made of both bone tissue and marrow. Blood is considered a specialized form of connective tissue composed of blood cells suspended in plasma.
1. Muscle tissue is one of four primary tissue types and is divided into three main categories: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones and allows voluntary movement.
2. Skeletal muscle contains bundles of fibers surrounded by connective tissues. Within the fibers are myofibrils composed of thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments that slide past each other to cause muscle contraction.
3. Contraction is triggered when a motor neuron stimulates the neuromuscular junction, causing calcium release and the myosin heads to interact with and pull on the actin filaments. The strength of contraction depends on factors like overlap of filaments and stimulation frequency.
This document summarizes the histology and classification of muscle tissue. There are three main types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary. Cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary. Smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary. Skeletal muscle is composed of elongated cells with multiple nuclei and striations due to the overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Cardiac muscle cells are branched with central nuclei and intercalated discs. Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with a single central nucleus. The document focuses on the histology and structure of skeletal muscle.
MUSCLE physiology assignment and good notes for examMahiul Karim
Muscles comprise about 40-50% of body weight and are responsible for movement. The core function of muscle is to convert chemical energy into mechanical force, enabling both voluntary and involuntary movement as well as maintaining posture. There are three main types of muscle - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac - classified based on location and control. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, attaching to bones, and its contraction is stimulated by the nervous system. The basic unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere, containing overlapping actin and myosin filaments whose sliding interaction causes muscle contraction.
Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of long cylindrical multinucleated cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past each other, causing muscle contraction. There are three types of muscle fibers - slow twitch, fast twitch fatigue-resistant, and fast twitch fatigable. Muscle contraction occurs via the sliding filament model, where cross bridges form between actin and myosin filaments, shortening the muscle. ATP provides energy for the cross bridge cycling that causes contraction.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle. It describes the key components of skeletal muscle including muscle fibers, sarcomeres and myofilaments. The sliding filament model of muscle contraction is explained, whereby interaction between the thick and thin myofilaments causes sarcomeres to shorten and muscles to contract.
Med Muscle physiology merged.ppt HAWASSAEYOSIASABIY
1. The document discusses the physiology of muscle, including the characteristics, functions, and types of muscle cells. It focuses on skeletal muscle cells.
2. There are three main types of muscle cells - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscles are voluntary, striated, and attached to bones. They allow for movement.
3. The document describes the structure and function of skeletal muscle cells in detail. Key components include sarcomeres with overlapping thin and thick filaments, sarcoplasmic reticulum, T-tubules, and the sliding filament model of contraction.
This document summarizes the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It describes the structure and function of skeletal muscle tissue in detail. Skeletal muscle tissue contains bundles of fibers that are made up of myofibrils containing overlapping thin and thick filaments. Contraction occurs via the sliding filament mechanism when myosin cross bridges on the thick filaments pull the thin filaments inward, causing the sarcomeres and overall muscle fiber to shorten. Key proteins involved include actin, myosin, titin, and regulatory proteins like troponin and tropomyosin.
Unit Three - Excitable Tissues (Muscle).pptWasihun Aragie
Muscles contribute to homeostasis through movement, substance transport, and heat generation. Muscle contraction occurs when skeletal muscle fibers shorten via the sliding of thick and thin myofilaments past each other within sarcomeres. There are three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle - which differ in structure and control. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary, cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, and smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary.
1) Skeletal muscle tissue consists of long, cylindrical multinucleated cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain contractile myofibrils composed of actin and myosin filaments that generate force.
2) Muscle fibers are classified based on their structure and function into three types - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary.
3) The basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere, composed of overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Contraction occurs when the filaments slide past each other towards the center of the sarcomere.
1) Skeletal muscle tissue consists of long, cylindrical multinucleated cells called muscle fibers. Muscle fibers contain contractile myofibrils composed of actin and myosin filaments that generate force.
2) Muscle fibers are classified based on their structure and function into three types - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Skeletal muscle is striated and voluntary.
3) The basic contractile unit of skeletal muscle is the sarcomere, composed of overlapping actin and myosin filaments. Contraction occurs when the filaments slide past each other towards the center of the sarcomere.
Muscular movement is controlled by three types of muscle tissues: striated, cardiac, and smooth muscle. Striated muscle makes up skeletal muscle and controls voluntary movement. It is characterized by visible striations due to the arrangement of actin and myosin filaments. Contraction occurs when myosin heads bind to actin and pull the filaments together, shortening the muscle. Several proteins and structures are involved in the precise sliding mechanism of skeletal muscle contraction and relaxation. Common muscular disorders include muscular dystrophy, osteoporosis, and different types of arthritis that affect the joints and bones.
Muscle Introduction and molecular structure.ppthumairabibi842
muscles introduction including the structure of skeletal muscles which helps you understand the molecular contraction of muscles and the whole contraction mechanism of the muscles. I hope it will help you.
OVERVIEW
Muscle is a tissue characterized by irritability
and contractility. It is composed of elongated cells
called myocytes that contain contractile proteins
organized as cytoplasmic filaments. Muscle cells are
attached to bones and soft tissues, and thereby
accomplish mechanical movements as a consequence
of their contraction (shortening). Traditionally,
three types of muscle tissue are recognized:
skeletal, cardiac, and smooth. Skeletal and
cardiac muscle are classified as striated muscles
based on the appearance of striations that run
perpendicular to the long axis of the cells. The
striations are due to a highly ordered, repetitive
organization of two filamentous contractile proteins
- actin and myosin, which are arranged into thin and
thick filaments, respectively. Smooth muscle lacks
striations due to a less structured, looser
arrangement of its contractile filaments. In muscle
terminology, the sarcolemma refers to the muscle
cell membrane, the sarcoplasm refers to the
cytoplasm, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum
refers to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
This document provides an overview of skeletal muscle form and function. It discusses that skeletal muscle makes up 40-50% of total body weight and contains over 600 muscles. Skeletal muscle fibers are striated, voluntary, and attached by tendons to bones. The document then details the microscopic structure of skeletal muscle including sarcomeres, myofilaments, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and the sliding filament model of contraction. Finally, it summarizes the four main functions of skeletal muscle as locomotion, maintaining posture, stabilizing bones and joints, and controlling internal movement.
The document summarizes the structure and function of the muscular system. It describes the three main types of muscle tissue - skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle - and their distinguishing characteristics. It also details the structure of skeletal muscle from the organ level down to the contractile proteins that enable muscle contraction in response to neural stimulation.
Animal physiology and anatomy muscular systemSijo A
Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals.
They are primarly responsible for maintaining and changing posture,locomotion as well as movement of internal organs.
They are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as myogenesis.
Based on locomotion three types of muscles are identified.
The document provides an overview of the muscular system including the three types of muscle tissues - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It describes the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fibers and their sarcomere structure. The sliding filament theory of muscle contraction is explained, involving the interaction of the thick myosin and thin actin filaments through ATP hydrolysis. Contraction is triggered by an action potential causing calcium release and the binding of myosin heads to actin, pulling the Z-lines inward.
Organisation of sarcomere.pdfehdshtdhserthSriRam071
The document discusses the structure and organization of muscle tissue. It describes the basic unit of muscle contraction, the sarcomere, which is composed of thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments. It explains that sarcomeres are arranged in repeating patterns within myofibrils to give skeletal and cardiac muscles their striated appearance. Contraction occurs when myosin heads bind to actin and the filaments slide past each other. The sarcomere is regulated by troponin and tropomyosin on the actin filaments. The sarcoplasmic reticulum stores and releases calcium ions to control contraction.
The document describes the three types of muscle tissue - skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle. It then focuses on skeletal muscle, discussing the connective tissue wrappings that make up the organ, and the different patterns of fascicle arrangement including parallel, convergent, pennate, and circular muscles. It provides details on the microscopic anatomy of skeletal muscle fibers, including myofibrils, myofilaments, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and calcium ion role in contraction.
X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Röntgen in 1895. They are produced when a solid target like copper or tungsten is bombarded with electrons with kinetic energies in the kilo electron volt range, emitting electromagnetic radiation. The common device used to produce x-rays is a Coolidge tube, which contains a cathode filament and anode target metal. When a voltage is applied, cathode rays hit the target at a 45 degree angle, producing invisible x-rays over a spectrum of wavelengths. X-rays are used in medicine for diagnostic imaging due to their ability to pass through matter and be captured on photographic plates.
8. ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM (Biomedical Physics).pdfDR NIYATI PATEL
Maxwell predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves in 1865 through theoretical considerations, while Hertz confirmed their existence experimentally in 1888. Hertz's experiment was based on the fact that an oscillating electric charge radiates electromagnetic waves, supplying energy from its kinetic energy. The orderly distribution of electromagnetic radiations according to their wavelength or frequency is called the electromagnetic spectrum, which has a wide range of wavelengths from 10-14 m to 6 × 106 m. The spectrum includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared rays, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma rays. These different types of electromagnetic waves have various uses including in communication technologies, medical treatments and diagnoses, food preservation, and more.
SOUND, TYPES OF SOUND, INTERFERENCE OF SOUND, CALCULATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR, NEWTON'S FORMULA, LAPLACE'S FORMULA, DOPPLER EFFECT, ECHO, RESONANCE, MAGNETO STRICTION & PIEZO ELECTRIC PRODUCTION OF SOUND, APPLICATION OF SOUND
This document defines malaria and discusses its transmission, pathogenesis, clinical features, complications, diagnosis, and management. Malaria is caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted via mosquito bites and characterized by periodic fevers. P. falciparum can cause potentially fatal malaria. Complications include tropical splenomegaly syndrome, nephropathy, and anemia. Diagnosis involves blood smears to identify parasites and antigen testing. Management consists of antimalarial drugs like quinine, addressing complications, and specific treatment for children and pregnant women in high-risk areas.
This document defines mental retardation as sub-average general intelligence that manifests during early development, resulting in diminished learning capacity and difficulty adjusting socially. It describes several clinical features of mental retardation including family history, home environment factors, physical anomalies, and delays in development. It also discusses intelligence quotient (IQ) tests which assess verbal and non-verbal abilities to determine a patient's mental age and classify their level of retardation. The causes of mental retardation include both prenatal factors like genetic conditions and perinatal factors like infections, while management involves counseling, education, rehabilitation, and treatment of behavioral issues.
The document discusses normal growth and development from conception through childhood. It describes the stages of growth from the ovum and embryo stages through infancy, childhood and adolescence. It outlines the factors that can affect growth and development such as genetics, hormones, nutrition, socioeconomic status and intellectual stimulation. Key growth parameters like weight, height and head circumference are provided for each stage of development. Milestones for gross motor, fine motor, social and language development are also outlined. Abnormal growth such as low birth weight, microcephaly and macrocephaly are defined and their potential causes discussed.
Tetanus is caused by a neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani bacteria that enters the body through wounds or burns. It causes muscle spasms by blocking motor neuron synapses in the central nervous system. Symptoms range from lockjaw to generalized painful muscle spasms. Treatment involves wound care, antibiotics, medications to control spasms, and supportive care like ventilation for severe cases. Prevention centers on immunization and proper wound management.
Measles is an acute viral respiratory illness characterized by fever, cough, conjunctivitis, and a maculopapular rash. It most commonly affects children between ages 3-5 years. The virus is highly infectious and spreads through direct contact or droplets. Clinical features include a prodromal stage with fever and Koplik's spots, followed by an exanthematous rash that begins behind the ears and spreads all over the body. Complications can include pneumonia, otitis media, and blindness. Prevention is through vaccination with the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine.
Chickenpox is primarily a disease of children caused by the varicella zoster virus. It is transmitted through respiratory droplets or direct contact. The infection causes a rash that starts on the back and chest and spreads to the face and limbs, going through macule, papule and vesicle stages before forming scabs. Complications can include bacterial skin infections or, rarely, pneumonia, encephalitis or congenital abnormalities in newborns. Treatment focuses on relieving symptoms like pruritus and treating secondary infections with antibiotics or antivirals. Vaccination provides effective prevention.
Diphtheria is caused by a bacterial infection of the respiratory tract or skin by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, which produces a toxin. The bacteria do not invade deeply but multiply locally, causing tissue necrosis and formation of a pseudomembrane. The toxin can also enter the bloodstream and cause neurological or heart complications. Symptoms vary depending on the site of infection but may include throat swelling, difficulty breathing, and skin lesions. Diagnosis involves culturing samples from infected sites. Treatment involves antitoxin administration, antibiotics, and supportive care such as airway management for laryngeal infections. Complications can affect the heart or nerves if not properly treated.
The document discusses immunization and vaccination. It defines key terms like vaccination, immunization, seroconversion, and seroprotection. It outlines the national immunization schedule from birth through adolescence according to both the universal immunization program and the Indian association of paediatrics. The schedule includes vaccines for diseases like tuberculosis, diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, hepatitis B, Hib, measles, mumps, rubella, and typhoid. The document also discusses the route of administration for different vaccines and possible adverse effects.
This document discusses several vitamin deficiencies including vitamins A, D, C, and B1. It provides details on the roles of these vitamins, signs and symptoms of deficiencies, diagnostic testing, and treatment approaches. Vitamin A is important for vision, growth, and reproduction. Vitamin D deficiency can cause rickets, a softening of the bones. Scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency and results in issues with collagen production. Beriberi is a thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency that can impact the heart or nerves. Treatment for the deficiencies involves supplementation with the respective vitamins.
This document discusses malnutritional disorders in infants and children. It describes kwashiorkor and marasmus as the two main types of protein-energy malnutrition. Kwashiorkor mainly affects children aged 1-3 years and is characterized by edema, skin changes, fatty liver and hypoalbuminemia. Marasmus mainly affects children under 1 year of age and results in severe wasting and loss of muscle mass. The management of severe malnutrition involves immediate resuscitation, restoration of weight and nutritional rehabilitation over several weeks.
The femoral nerve originates from the lumbar plexus and innervates muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh. Causes of femoral neuropathy include pelvic or femoral fractures, hip dislocations, spinal issues, and diabetes. Symptoms include sensory loss and weakness of the quadriceps and hip flexors. Special tests like the slump test and prone knee bending test isolate compression of the femoral nerve. Electromyography can help evaluate the severity and location of nerve damage. Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause, physical therapy, bracing, and surgery in severe cases.
This document discusses tibial neuropathy, including its anatomy, causes, signs and symptoms, investigations, types of injuries, and treatment options. The tibial nerve arises from the L4, L5, S1 and S2 nerve roots and supplies motor innervation to the gastrocnemius, soleus, and other calf and foot muscles. Common causes of tibial neuropathy include injection palsy, penetrating leg injuries, tarsal tunnel syndrome, and Morton's neuroma. Signs and symptoms involve sensory loss and weakness of the innervated muscles. Investigations may include MRI, EMG, and nerve conduction studies. Treatment involves conservative options like physical therapy or surgical procedures like nerve grafting or tendon transfers.
The obturator nerve arises from the lumbar plexus and supplies motor innervation to several adductor muscles of the thigh. It can be injured due to hip dislocation, pelvic fracture, or compression by a mass. Injury results in sensory loss in the thigh and paralysis of the adductor muscles. This causes the patient to walk with a narrow base and have loss of hip adduction range of motion. Treatment involves physiotherapy like electrical stimulation and stretching exercises to prevent deformities while the nerve regenerates over months. Special tests like Tinel's sign and slump test can help evaluate an obturator nerve injury.
The common peroneal nerve is a branch of the sciatic nerve that innervates muscles of the lower leg and foot. Common peroneal neuropathy can result from compression of the nerve due to trauma, fractures, immobilization, or other causes. This leads to weakness of ankle dorsiflexors and foot everters, sensory loss, and a foot drop gait. Diagnosis involves nerve conduction studies and EMG. Treatment may include immobilization, physical therapy, splinting, and tendon transfers in severe cases.
This document discusses sciatic neuropathy, including its anatomy, causes, signs and symptoms, investigations, types of injuries, and treatments. The sciatic nerve is the thickest nerve in the body and originates from the lumbosacral plexus, supplying muscles in the lower limb. Causes of sciatic neuropathy include pelvic fractures, hip dislocations, and compression by tumors. Signs include sensory loss and muscle paralysis below the knee, resulting in foot drop and gait abnormalities. Investigations include MRI, EMG, and nerve conduction studies. Treatments focus on preventing contractures and foot drop through electrical stimulation, splinting, and customized footwear.
Force is a push or pull that can change the motion of an object. There are three laws of motion defined by Newton:
1) An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
2) The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the direction of the net force.
3) For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Forces can be balanced or unbalanced. Balanced forces cancel each other out while unbalanced forces result in changes to motion.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
The debris of the ‘last major merger’ is dynamically youngSérgio Sacani
The Milky Way’s (MW) inner stellar halo contains an [Fe/H]-rich component with highly eccentric orbits, often referred to as the
‘last major merger.’ Hypotheses for the origin of this component include Gaia-Sausage/Enceladus (GSE), where the progenitor
collided with the MW proto-disc 8–11 Gyr ago, and the Virgo Radial Merger (VRM), where the progenitor collided with the
MW disc within the last 3 Gyr. These two scenarios make different predictions about observable structure in local phase space,
because the morphology of debris depends on how long it has had to phase mix. The recently identified phase-space folds in Gaia
DR3 have positive caustic velocities, making them fundamentally different than the phase-mixed chevrons found in simulations
at late times. Roughly 20 per cent of the stars in the prograde local stellar halo are associated with the observed caustics. Based
on a simple phase-mixing model, the observed number of caustics are consistent with a merger that occurred 1–2 Gyr ago.
We also compare the observed phase-space distribution to FIRE-2 Latte simulations of GSE-like mergers, using a quantitative
measurement of phase mixing (2D causticality). The observed local phase-space distribution best matches the simulated data
1–2 Gyr after collision, and certainly not later than 3 Gyr. This is further evidence that the progenitor of the ‘last major merger’
did not collide with the MW proto-disc at early times, as is thought for the GSE, but instead collided with the MW disc within
the last few Gyr, consistent with the body of work surrounding the VRM.
Or: Beyond linear.
Abstract: Equivariant neural networks are neural networks that incorporate symmetries. The nonlinear activation functions in these networks result in interesting nonlinear equivariant maps between simple representations, and motivate the key player of this talk: piecewise linear representation theory.
Disclaimer: No one is perfect, so please mind that there might be mistakes and typos.
dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
Corrected slides: dtubbenhauer.com/talks.html
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Current Ms word generated power point presentation covers major details about the micronuclei test. It's significance and assays to conduct it. It is used to detect the micronuclei formation inside the cells of nearly every multicellular organism. It's formation takes place during chromosomal sepration at metaphase.
Nucleophilic Addition of carbonyl compounds.pptxSSR02
Nucleophilic addition is the most important reaction of carbonyls. Not just aldehydes and ketones, but also carboxylic acid derivatives in general.
Carbonyls undergo addition reactions with a large range of nucleophiles.
Comparing the relative basicity of the nucleophile and the product is extremely helpful in determining how reversible the addition reaction is. Reactions with Grignards and hydrides are irreversible. Reactions with weak bases like halides and carboxylates generally don’t happen.
Electronic effects (inductive effects, electron donation) have a large impact on reactivity.
Large groups adjacent to the carbonyl will slow the rate of reaction.
Neutral nucleophiles can also add to carbonyls, although their additions are generally slower and more reversible. Acid catalysis is sometimes employed to increase the rate of addition.
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
8.Isolation of pure cultures and preservation of cultures.pdf
Muscle Physiology.pdf
1. DR NIYATI N PATEL
MPT IN NEUROLOGICAL CONDITIONS
PH.D SCHOLAR
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
2. Human body has more than 600 muscles.
Muscles perform many useful functions and help us in
doing everything in day-to-day life.
Muscles are classified by three different methods,
based on different factors:
I. Depending upon the presence or absence of striations
II. Depending upon the control
III. Depending upon the situation.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
3. DEPENDING UPON STRIATIONS
Depending upon the presence or absence of cross
striations, the muscles are divided into two groups:
1. Striated muscle
2. Non-striated muscle.
1. Striated Muscle
Striated muscle is the muscle which has a large number of
cross-striations (transverse lines).
Skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle belong to this category.
2. Non-striated Muscle
Muscle which does not have cross-striations is called non-
striated muscle.
It is also called plain muscle or smooth muscle.
It is found in the wall of the visceral organs.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
4. DEPENDING UPON CONTROL
Depending upon control, the muscles are classified into two
types:
1. Voluntary muscle
2. Involuntary muscle.
1. Voluntary Muscle
Voluntary muscle is the muscle that is controlled by the will.
Skeletal muscles are the voluntary muscles.
These muscles are innervated by somatic nerves.
2. Involuntary Muscle
Muscle that cannot be controlled by the will is called involuntary
muscle.
Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle are involuntary muscles.
These muscles are innervated by autonomic nerves.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
5. DEPENDING UPON SITUATION
Depending upon situation, the muscles are classified
into three types:
1. Skeletal muscle
2. Cardiac muscle
3. Smooth muscle
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
6. 1. Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle is situated in association with bones
forming the skeletal system.
The skeletal muscles form 40% to 50% of body mass and
are voluntary and striated.
These muscles are supplied by somatic nerves.
Fibers of the skeletal muscles are arranged in parallel.
In most of the skeletal muscles, muscle fibers are
attached to tendons on either end.
Skeletal muscles are anchored to the bones by the
tendons.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
7. 2. Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle forms the musculature of the heart.
These muscles are striated and involuntary.
Cardiac muscles are supplied by autonomic nerve fibers.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
8. 3. Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle is situated in association with viscera.
It is also called visceral muscle.
It is different from skeletal and cardiac muscles because
of the absence of cross-striations, hence the name
smooth muscle.
Smooth muscle is supplied by autonomic nerve fibers.
Smooth muscles form the main contractile units of wall
of the various visceral organs.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
10. MUSCLE MASS
Muscle mass or muscle
tissue is made up of a
large number of
individual muscle cells
or myocytes.
The muscle cells are
commonly called
muscle fibers because
these cells are long and
slender in appearance.
Skeletal muscle fibers
are multinucleated and
are arranged parallel to
one another
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
11. Beneath the fascia, muscle is
covered by a connective
tissue sheath called
epimysium.
In the muscle, the muscle
fibers are arranged in various
groups called bundles or
fasciculi. Connective tissue
sheath that covers each
fasciculus is called
perimysium.
Each muscle fiber is covered
by a connective tissue layer
called the endomysium
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
12. MUSCLE FIBER
Each muscle cell or muscle fiber is cylindrical in shape.
Average length of the fiber is 3 cm.
It varies between 1 cm and 4 cm, depending upon the
length of the muscle.
Muscle fibers are attached to a tough cord of
connective tissue called tendon
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
13. Each muscle fiber is
enclosed by a cell
membrane called
plasma membrane, that
lies beneath the
endomysium. It is also
called sarcolemma.
Cytoplasm of the
muscle is known as
sarcoplasm.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
15. MYOFIBRIL
Myofibrils or myofibrillae are the fine parallel
filaments present in sarcoplasm of the muscle cell.
Myofibrils run through the entire length of the muscle
fiber.
Diameter of the myofibril is 0.2 to 2 μ.
The length of a myofibril varies between 1 cm and 4
cm, depending upon the length of the muscle fiber
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
16. MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF A MYOFIBRIL
Light Band or ‘I’ Band
Light band is called ‘I’ (isotropic) band because it is isotropic
to polarized light
When polarized light is passed through the muscle fiber at
this area, light rays are refracted at the same angle
Dark Band or ‘A’ Band
Dark band is called ‘A’ (anisotropic) band because it is
anisotropic to polarized light
When polarized light is passed through the muscle fiber at
this area, the light rays are refracted at different directions
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
17. SARCOMERE
Definition
Sarcomere is defined as the structural and functional
unit of a skeletal muscle.
It is also called the basic contractile unit of the muscle
Extent
Each sarcomere extends between two ‘Z’ lines of
myofibril
The average length of each sarcomere is 2 to 3 μ
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
18. Components
Each myofibril consists of an
alternate dark ‘A’ band and
light ‘I’ band
In the middle of ‘A’ band, there
is a light area called ‘H’ zone
(H = hell = light – in German, H
= Henson – discoverer).
In the middle of ‘H’ zone lies
the middle part of myosin
filament. This is called ‘M’ line
(in German-mittel = middle).
‘M’ line is formed by myosin
binding proteins
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
20. ACTIN FILAMENTS: Thin filaments, Diameter of 20 Å
and a length of 1 μ
MYOSIN FILAMENTS: Thick filaments with a
diameter of 115 Å and a length of 1.5 μ
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
21. Cross-bridges
Some lateral processes
(projections) called
crossbridges arise from
each myosin filament.
These bridges have
enlarged structures called
myosin heads at their tips
Myosin heads attach
themselves to actin
filaments
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
22. CONTRACTILE ELEMENTS
(PROTEINS) OF MUSCLE
Myosin filaments are formed by myosin molecules.
Actin filaments are formed by three types of proteins
called actin, tropomyosin and troponin.
These four proteins together constitute the contractile
proteins or the contractile elements of the muscle
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
23. MYOSIN MOLECULE
Each myosin filament consists of about 200 myosin
molecules.
Though about 18 classes of myosin are identified, only myosin
II is present in the sarcomere
Myosin II is a globulin with a molecular weight of 480,000
Each myosin molecule is made up of 6 polypeptide chains, of
which two are heavy chains and four are light chains
Molecular weight of each heavy chain is 200,000 (2 × 200,000 =
400,000)
Molecular weight of each light chain is 20,000 (4 × 20,000 = 80,000)
Thus, total molecular weight of each myosin molecule is 480,000
(400,000 + 80,000)
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
24. Portions of Myosin Molecule
Each myosin molecule has two portions:
1. Tail portion
2. Head portion.
Tail portion of myosin molecule
It is made up of two heavy chains, which twist around each other in
the form of a double helix
Head portion of myosin molecule
At one end of the double helix, both the heavy chain turn away in
opposite directions and form the globular head portion.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
25. ACTIN MOLECULE
Actin molecules are the major constituents of the thin
actin filaments.
Each actin molecule is called F-actin and it is the
polymer of a small protein known as G-actin.
There are about 300 to 400 actin molecules in each actin
filament.
The molecular weight of each molecule is 42,000.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
26. TROPOMYOSIN
About 40 to 60 tropomyosin molecules are situated
along the double helix strand of actin filament.
Each tropomyosin molecule has the molecular weight of
70,000
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
27. TROPONIN
It is formed by three subunits:
1. Troponin I, which is attached to Factin
2. Troponin T, which is attached to tropomyosin
3. Troponin C, which is attached to calcium ions.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
28. OTHER PROTEINS OF THE MUSCLE
In addition to the contractile proteins, the sarcomere
contains several other proteins such as:
1. Actinin, which attaches actin filament to ‘Z’ line.
2. Desmin, which binds ‘Z’ line with sarcolemma.
3. Nebulin, which runs in close association with and
parallel to actin filaments.
4. Titin, a large protein connecting ‘M’ line and ‘Z’ line. Each
titin molecule forms scaffolding (framework) for sarcomere
and provides elasticity to the muscle.
5. Dystrophin, a rodshaped large protein that connects
actin filament to dystroglycan
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
29. SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM
Sarcotubular system is a system of membranous structures in the form
of vesicles and tubules in the sarco plasm of the muscle fiber.
It surrounds the myofibrils embedded in the sarcoplasm
STRUCTURES CONSTITUTING THE SARCOTUBULAR SYSTEM
T-Tubules
T tubules or transverse tubules are narrow tubules formed by the
invagination of the sarcolemma.
These tubules penetrate all the way from one side of the muscle fiber to
an another side.
That is, these tubules penetrate the muscle cell through and through.
Therefore, the ECF runs through their lumen.
L-Tubules or Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
L tubules or longitudinal tubules are the closed tubules that run in long
axis of the muscle fiber, forming sarcoplasmic reticulum.
These tubules form a closed tubular system around each myofibril and
do not open to exterior like T tubules.
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
30. FUNCTIONS OF SARCOTUBULAR
SYSTEM
Function of T-Tubules
T tubules are responsible for rapid transmission of impulse in
the form of action potential from sarcolemma to the
myofibrils
When muscle is stimulated, the action potential develops in
sarcolemma and spreads through it
Function of L-Tubules
L tubules store a large quantity of calcium ions.
Calcium ions trigger the processes involved in contraction of
the muscle.
The process by which the calcium ions cause contraction of
muscle is called excitation contraction couplin
P/B:- DR NIYATI PATEL
31. COMPOSITION OF MUSCLE
Skeletal muscle is formed by 75% of water and 25% of
solids. Solids are 20% of proteins and 5% of organic
substances other than proteins and inorganic
substances
Myoglobin is present in sarcoplasm. It is also called
myohemoglobin.
Its function is similar to that of hemoglobin, that is, to
carry oxygen.
It is a conjugated protein with a molecular weight of
17,000.
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33. EXCITABILITY
Excitability is defined as the reaction or response of a tissue
to irritation or stimulation.
Stimulus - Stimulus is the change in environment
TYPES OF STIMULUS
four types :
1. Mechanical stimulus (pinching)
2. Electrical stimulus (electric shock)
3. Thermal stimulus (applying heated glass rod or ice
piece)
4. Chemical stimulus (applying chemical substances
like acids
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34. QUALITIES OF STIMULUS
To excite a tissue, the stimulus must possess two
characters:
1. Intensity or strength
i. Subminimal stimulus
ii. Minimal stimulus
iii. Submaximal stimulus
iv. Maximal stimulus
v. Supramaximal stimulus
2. Duration
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35. EXCITABILITY CURVE
OR STRENGTH-
DURATION CURVE
Excitability curve is the
graph that demonstrates
the exact relationship
between the strength and
the duration of a
stimulus. So, it is also
called the strength-
duration curve
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36. Characteristic Features of the Curve
The shape of the curve is similar in almost all the
excitable tissues.
1. Rheobase : Rheobase is the minimum strength
(voltage) of stimulus, which can excite the tissue
2. Utilization time : Utilization time is the minimum
time required for rheobasic strength of stimulus
(threshold strength) to excite the tissue.
3. Chronaxie : Chronaxie is the minimum time required
for a stimulus with double the rheobasic strength
(voltage) to excite the tissue
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37. „CONTRACTILITY
Contractility is the response of the muscle to a
stimulus
Contraction is defined as the internal events of muscle
with change in either length or tension of the muscle
fibers
TYPES OF CONTRACTION
Muscular contraction is classified into two types based
on change in the length of muscle fibers or tension of
the muscle:
1. Isotonic contraction
2. Isometric contraction
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38. Isotonic Contraction- Isotonic contraction is the
type of muscular contraction in which the tension
remains the same and the length of the muscle fiber is
altered (iso = same: tonic = tension)
Isometric Contraction - Isometric contraction is the
type of muscular contraction in which the length of
muscle fibers remains the same and the tension is
increased
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39. Periods of Simple Muscle Curve
1. Latent period - Latent period is
the time interval between the point
of stimulus and point of
contraction. The muscle does not
show any mechanical activity
during this period.
2. Contraction period - Contraction
period is the interval between point
of contraction and point of
maximum contraction. Muscle
contracts during this period.
3. Relaxation period - Relaxation
period is the interval between point
of maximum contraction and point
of maximum relaxation. The muscle
relaxes during this period
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40. CONTRACTION TIME – RED MUSCLE AND PALE
MUSCLE
Red (slow) muscle Pale (fast) muscle
1. Type I fibers are more
2. Myoglobin content is high. So, it is
red
3. Sarcoplasmic reticulum is less
extensive
4. Blood vessels are more extensive
5. Mitochondria are more in number
6. Response is slow with long latent
period
7. Contraction is less powerful
8. This muscle is involved in prolonged
and continued activity as it undergoes
sustained contraction
9. Fatigue occurs slowly
10. Depends upon cellular respiration
for ATP production
1.Type II fibers are more
2.Myoglobin content is less. So, it is
pale
3.Sarcoplasmic reticulum is more
extensive
4.Blood vessels are less extensive
5.Mitochondria are less in number
6.Response is rapid with short latent
period
7.Contraction is more powerful
8.This muscle is not involved in
prolonged and continued
Activity as it relaxes immediately
9.Fatigue occurs quickly
10.Depends upon glycolysis for ATP
production
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41. Effect of Number of Stimulus
Effects of two successive stimuli
Effects of two successive stimuli. PS1 = Point of first
stimulus, PS2 = Point of second stimulus
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42. Fatigue : Fatigue is defined as the decrease in
muscular activity due to repeated stimuli.
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43. Recovery of the muscle after fatigue Fatigue is a reversible
phenomenon. Fatigued muscle recovers
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44. Tetanus : Tetanus is defined as the sustained
contraction of muscle due to repeated stimuli with
high frequency
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45. Effect of Load - Load acting on
muscle is of two types:
After load
After load is the load, that acts on
the muscle after the beginning of
muscular contraction.
Example of after load is lifting any
object from the ground. The load
acts on muscles of arm only after
lifting the object off the ground.
Free load
Free load is the load, which acts
on the muscle freely, even before
the onset of contraction of the
muscle.
Example of free load is filling
water from a tap by holding the
bucket in hand.
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46. LENGTH-TENSION RELATIONSHIP
Tension or force
developed in the
muscle during resting
condition and during
contraction varies with
the length of the
muscle
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47. MUSCLE TONE
Muscle tone is defined as continuous and partial contraction
of the muscles with certain degree of vigor and tension
MAINTENANCE OF MUSCLE TONE
In Skeletal Muscle
Maintenance of tone in skeletal muscle is neurogenic.
It is due to continuous discharge of impulses from gamma
motor neurons in anterior gray horn of spinal cord.
The gamma motor neurons in spinal cord are controlled by
higher centers in brain
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48. In Cardiac Muscle
In cardiac muscle, maintenance of tone is purely
myogenic, i.e. the muscles themselves control the tone.
The tone is not under nervous control in cardiac muscle
In Smooth Muscle
In smooth muscle, tone is myogenic.
It depends upon calcium level and number of cross
bridges.
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49. APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY –
ABNORMALITIES OF MUSCLE TONE
Abnormalities of muscle tone are:
1. Hypertonia :-Hypertonia or hypertonicity is a
muscular disease characterized by increased muscle
tone and inability of the muscle to stretch
2. Hypotonia :-Hypotonia is the muscular disease
characterized by decreased muscle tone. The tone of
the muscle is decreased or lost
3. Myotonia :-Myotonia is a congenital disease
characterized by continuous contraction of muscle
and slow relaxation even after the cessation of
voluntary act.
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51. DEFINITION
Neuromuscular junction is the
junction between terminal
branch of the nerve fiber and
muscle fiber.
STRUCTURE
Skeletal muscle fibers are
innervated by the motor nerve
fibers.
Each nerve fiber (axon)
divides into many terminal
branches.
Each terminal branch
innervates one muscle fiber
through the neuromuscular
junction
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52. Axon Terminal and Motor Endplate
Terminal branch of nerve fiber is called axon terminal
Axon comes close to muscle fiber, it loses the myelin sheath
Portion of the axis cylinder is expanded like a bulb, which is
called motor endplate.
Axon terminal contains mitochondria and synaptic
vesicles
Synaptic vesicles neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach)
Ach is synthesized by mitochondria ATP (source of
energy)
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53. Synaptic Trough or Gutter
Motor endplate invaginates inside the muscle fiber and forms
a depression, which is known as synaptic trough or
synaptic gutter.
Synaptic Cleft
Membrane of the nerve ending is called the presynaptic
membrane.
Membrane of the muscle fiber is called postsynaptic
membrane.
Space between these two membranes is called synaptic cleft
Synaptic cleft contains basal lamina
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54. Subneural Clefts
Postsynaptic
membrane is the
membrane of the
muscle fiber. It is
thrown into numerous
folds called subneural
clefts.
Postsynaptic
membrane contains the
receptors called
nicotinic
acetylcholine
receptors
Structure of neuromuscular junction
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55. NEUROMUSCULAR
TRANSMISSION
Definition
Neuromuscular transmission is defined as the transfer of
information from motor nerve ending to the muscle fiber through
neuromuscular junction.
It is the mechanism by which the motor nerve impulses initiate
muscle contraction.
Events of Neuromuscular Transmission
The events are:
1. Release of acetylcholine
2. Action of acetylcholine
3. Development of endplate potential
4. Development of miniature endplate potential
5. Destruction of acetylcholine.
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57. NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKERS
Neuromuscular blockers are the drugs, which prevent
transmission of impulses from nerve fiber to the muscle
fiber through the neuromuscular junctions
During surgery and trauma care
1. Curare
Curare prevents the neuromuscular transmission by
combining with acetylcholine receptors
2. Bungarotoxin
Bungarotoxin is a toxin from the venom of deadly snakes.
It affects the neuromuscular transmission by blocking the
acetylcholine receptors
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58. 3. Succinylcholine and Carbamylcholine
These drugs block the neuromuscular transmission by
acting like acetylcholine and keeping the muscle in a
depolarized state
4. Botulinum Toxin
Botulinum toxin is derived from the bacteria
Clostridium botulinum
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60. MOTOR UNIT
Single motor neuron, its axon terminals and the
muscle fibers innervated by it are together called
motor unit
NUMBER OF MUSCLE FIBERS IN MOTOR UNIT
The muscles concerned with fine, graded and precise
movements smaller number of muscle fibers (2 to 6
muscle fibers per motor unit)
Muscles concerned with crude or coarse movements
large number of muscle fibers (120 to 165 muscle fibers
per motor unit)
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61. RECRUITMENT OF MOTOR UNITS
While stimulating the muscle with weak strength, only
a few motor units are involved.
When the strength of stimulus is increased, many
motor units are put into action the force of
contraction increases.
The process by which more and more motor units are
put into action is called recruitment of motor unit.
Thus, the graded response in the muscle is directly
proportional to the number of motor units activated.
Activation of motor units can be studied by
electromyography.
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62. APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY – DISORDERS
OF NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
Myasthenia gravis is an autoimmune disorder of
neuromuscular junction caused by antibodies to
cholinergic receptors (Please prepare note)
EATON-LAMBERT SYNDROME
Eaton-Lambert syndrome is also an autoimmune
disorder of neuromuscular junction.
It is caused by antibodies to calcium channels in axon
terminal
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64. Three factors are essential for the contraction of
skeletal muscle:
1. Strength of the muscle
2. Power of the muscle
3. Endurance of the muscle
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65. STRENGTH OF THE MUSCLE
Maximum force that can be developed during
contraction is known as strength of the muscle
TYPES OF MUSCLE STRENGTH
Strength of the muscle is of two types:
1. Contractile strength
2. Holding strength.
1. Contractile Strength
Contractile strength is the strength of the muscle
during the actual contraction or shortening of muscle
fibers. (eg-jumping)
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66. 2. Holding Strength
Holding strength is the force produced while
stretching the contracted muscles.
Eg-While landing after jumping
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67. POWER OF THE MUSCLE
Amount of work done by the muscle in a given unit of time
is called the power
Muscle power is directly proportional to these factors:
1. Strength of the muscle.
2. Force of contraction.
3. Frequency of contraction.
Muscle power is generally expressed in kilogrammeter/min
First 8 to 10 seconds : 7,000 kg-m/min
Next 1 minute : 4,000 kg-m/min
Next 30 minute : 1,700 kg-m/min
This shows that the maximum power is developed only for
a short period of time.
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68. ENDURANCE OF THE MUSCLE
Capacity of the muscle to withstand the power
produced during activity is called endurance.
It depends mostly on the supply of nutrition to the
muscle Glycogen is important nutritive substance
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