coordination between different metabolic pathways inside the body is called integration of metabolism. this presentation discuss about how metabolism can be regulated and integrated in liver, muscle and adipose tissue.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids:-
These are compounds containing, in addition to fatty acid and glycerol, phosphoric acid, nitrogenous bases, and another substituent. Polar compounds composed of alcohol attached by phosphodiester bridge to either diacylglycerol or sphingosine.
Amphipathic in nature has a hydrophilic head (phosphate +alcohol
eg., serine, ethanolamine, and choline) and a long, hydrophobic tail
(fatty acids or derivatives ).
- CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS:-
- Glycerophospholipids
- Spingophospholipids or Sphingomyelin
- SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- FUNCTIONS OF SPHINGOLIPIDS
coordination between different metabolic pathways inside the body is called integration of metabolism. this presentation discuss about how metabolism can be regulated and integrated in liver, muscle and adipose tissue.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids:-
These are compounds containing, in addition to fatty acid and glycerol, phosphoric acid, nitrogenous bases, and another substituent. Polar compounds composed of alcohol attached by phosphodiester bridge to either diacylglycerol or sphingosine.
Amphipathic in nature has a hydrophilic head (phosphate +alcohol
eg., serine, ethanolamine, and choline) and a long, hydrophobic tail
(fatty acids or derivatives ).
- CLASSIFICATION OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS:-
- Glycerophospholipids
- Spingophospholipids or Sphingomyelin
- SYNTHESIS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHOLIPIDS
- FUNCTIONS OF SPHINGOLIPIDS
bio chemistry
كيمياء حيوية جامعة الملك سعود
chemistry
كيمياء جامعية
0503964728
محمد منير كيمياء
ابو يوسف
all branched of chemistry bio chemistry - organic chemistry - inorganic chemistry - analytically - spectra - d-block
Lipids are fats that are either absorbed from food or synthesized by the liver. Triglycerides (TGs) and cholesterol contribute most to disease, although all lipids are physiologically important.
Cholesterol is a ubiquitous constituent of cell membranes, steroids, bile acids, and signaling molecules.
Triglycerides primarily store energy in adipocytes and muscle cells.
Lipoproteins are hydrophilic, spherical structures that possess surface proteins (apoproteins, or apolipoproteins) that are cofactors and ligands for lipid-processing enzymes (see table Major Apoproteins and Enzymes Important to Lipid Metabolism). All lipids are hydrophobic and mostly insoluble in blood, so they require transport within lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are classified by size and density (defined as the ratio of lipid to protein) and are important because high levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and low levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL) are major risk factors for atherosclerotic heart disease.
Dyslipidemia is elevation of plasma cholesterol and/or triglycerides, or a low HDL cholesterol level that contributes to the development of atherosclerosis.
Multiple Choice Questions with Explanatory Answers on Chemistry of Carbohydrates for Medical, Biochemistry and Biology students - Chapter 1 of Multiple Choice Questions in Biochemistry by RC Gupta
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of the physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar lead (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
6. Describe the flow of current around the heart during the cardiac cycle
7. Discuss the placement and polarity of the leads of electrocardiograph
8. Describe the normal electrocardiograms recorded from the limb leads and explain the physiological basis of the different records that are obtained
9. Define mean electrical vector (axis) of the heart and give the normal range
10. Define the mean QRS vector
11. Describe the axes of leads (hexagonal reference system)
12. Comprehend the vectorial analysis of the normal ECG
13. Determine the mean electrical axis of the ventricular QRS and appreciate the mean axis deviation
14. Explain the concepts of current of injury, J point, and their significance
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. Chapter 3, Cardiology Explained, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK2214/
7. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Local Advanced Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex Sys...Oleg Kshivets
Overall life span (LS) was 1671.7±1721.6 days and cumulative 5YS reached 62.4%, 10 years – 50.4%, 20 years – 44.6%. 94 LCP lived more than 5 years without cancer (LS=2958.6±1723.6 days), 22 – more than 10 years (LS=5571±1841.8 days). 67 LCP died because of LC (LS=471.9±344 days). AT significantly improved 5YS (68% vs. 53.7%) (P=0.028 by log-rank test). Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: N0-N12, T3-4, blood cell circuit, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells-CC and blood cells subpopulations), LC cell dynamics, recalcification time, heparin tolerance, prothrombin index, protein, AT, procedure type (P=0.000-0.031). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and N0-12 (rank=1), thrombocytes/CC (rank=2), segmented neutrophils/CC (3), eosinophils/CC (4), erythrocytes/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), stick neutrophils/CC (8), leucocytes/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (error=0.000; area under ROC curve=1.0).
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
1. Metabolism of Phospholipids
R. C. Gupta
Professor and Head
Department of Biochemistry
National Institute of Medical Sciences
Jaipur, India
2. Phospholipids include: (i) glycerophospho-
lipids and (ii) sphingophospholipids
In glycerophospholipids, the alcohol is
glycerol
In sphingophospholipids, the alcohol is
sphingosine
3.
4.
5. The important glycero-
phospholipids are:
Phosphatidyl choline
Phosphatidyl ethanolamine
Phosphatidyl inositol
Phosphatidyl serine
Diphosphatidyl glycerol
Plasmalogen
6. Phosphatidyl choline is also known as
lecithin
Phosphatidyl ethanolamine is also known
as cephalin
Diphosphatidyl glycerol is also known as
cardiolipin
7. The only phosphosphingolipid is sphingo-
myelin
Sphingomyelin is found predominantly in
myelin sheath
Cell body Node of Ranvier
Schwann cell
Myelin sheathNucleus
8.
9. Amphipathic lipids can form bilayers
since non-polar tails attract each other
Lipid bilayers constitute the basic
structure of membranes
10. Lecithin is synthesized from activated
choline and diacylglycerol
Activated form of choline is CDP-choline
Synthesis of lecithin
11. A phosphate group is transferred from
ATP to choline forming phosphocholine
A cytidyl group is transferred from CTP to
phosphocholine forming CDP-choline
Phosphocholine is transferred from CDP-
choline to diacylglycerol forming lecithin
12.
13. Synthetic pathway for cephalin is similar
to that for lecithin
Ethanolamine is activated to CDP-
ethanolamine
This reacts with diacylglycerol to form
cephalin
Synthesis of cephalin
14.
15. Phosphatidyl serine is synthesized from
CDP-diacylglycerol and serine
CDP-Diacylglycerol is formed from
phosphatidic acid
CDP-Diacylglycerol reacts with serine to
form phosphatidyl serine
Synthesis of phosphatidyl serine
16.
17. Phosphatidyl inositol is synthesized from
CDP-diacylglycerol and inositol
CDP-Diacylglycerol is formed from
phosphatidic acid
CDP-Diacylglycerol reacts with inositol to
form phosphatidyl inositol
Synthesis of phosphatidyl inositol
18.
19. Glycerophospholipids can undergo inter-
conversion
Serine residue of phosphatidyl serine can
be decarboxylated to ethanolamine
This converts phosphatidyl serine into
phosphatidyl ethanolamine
20.
21. Ethanolamine residue of phosphatidyl
ethanolamine can be methylated
Addition of three methyl groups converts
ethanolamine into choline
Thus, phosphatidyl choline can be
formed from phosphatidyl ethanolamine
22.
23. The glycerophospholipids generally have:
A saturated fatty acid
at position 1
An unsaturated fatty
acid at position 2
The fatty acids at position 1 and position 2
are in a continuous state of flux
24. Dipalmitoyl lecithin has palmitate at both
position 1 and position 2
Dipalmitoyl lecithin is a component of
lung surfactant
Lung surfactant lowers surface tension at
the air/liquid interface in the alveoli
25.
26. Cardiolipin is diphosphatidyl glycerol
It is found only in mitochondria where it is
synthesized from:
Two molecules of
CDP-diacylglycerol
One molecule of
glycerol-3-phosphate
Synthesis of cardiolipin
27. A phosphatidate group is transferred from
CDP-diacylglycerol to glycerol-3-phosphate
The product is phosphatidyl glycerol-3-
phosphate
The phosphate group is split off to form
phosphatidyl glycerol
28. Phosphatidyl glycerol reacts with another
molecule of CDP-diacylglycerol
A phosphatidate group is transferred from
CDP-diacylglycerol to phosphatidyl glycerol
The product is diphosphatidyl glycerol
(cardiolipin)
29. CH – O2 – C – R1
O
||
CH – O – C – R2
|
CH – O – CDP2
O
||
CDP-Diacyl-
glycerol
CH –OH
|
CH
2
– OH
|
CH – O – P2
CMP
CH – O2 – C – R1
O
||
CH – O – C – R2
|
CH – O – P –O – CH2 2
|
CH – OH
|
CH – O – P2
O
||
Phosphatidyl glycerol-3-phosphateGlycerol-3-
phosphate
H O2
Pi
CH – O2 – C – R1
O
||
O
||
CH – O – C – R2
|
CH – O – P –O – CH2 2
|
CH – OH
|
CH – OH2
Phosphatidyl glycerol
CH – O2 – C – R3
O
||
CH – O – C – R4
|
CH – O – CDP2
O
||
CDP-Diacyl-
glycerol
CH – O2 – C – R1
O
||
CH – O – C – R2
CH – O – C – R
|
4
CH – O – C – R3
|
|
CH – OH
|
O
||
O
||
O
||
CH – O – P – O – CH2 2
CH – O – P – O – CH2 2
CMP
Diphosphatidyl glycerol (cardiolipin)
31. At first, a fatty acyl group is added to C1
of dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
Then, the acyl group is replaced by an
alkyl group
1-Alkyl DHAP is then reduced to 1-alkyl
glycerol-3-phosphate
32.
33. An acyl group is added to C2 of 1-alkyl
glycerol-3-phosphate
The phosphate is removed from C3
Phosphoethanolamine is added to C3
37. In some plasmalogens, ethanolamine is
replaced by choline or serine
Ethanolamine plasmalogen is present in
myelin
Choline plasmalogen is abundant in
cardiac tissue
Serine plasmalogen is present in retina
and white matter
38. Platelet activating factor (PAF) is a
specific type of plasmalogen
It has an alkyl group (generally 16-
carbon) at position 1
The acyl group at position 2 is acetate
Phosphocholine is present at position 3
39.
40. PAF is released by several types of cells
in response to a variety of stimuli
It is a very powerful chemical mediator
It mediates inflammatory reaction, hyper-
sensitivity and anaphylactic shock
PAF causes platelet aggregation, vaso-
dilatation and bronchoconstriction
41. Glycerophospholipids are hydrolysed by
phospholipases
There are several different phospho-
lipases
Each phospholipase acts on a specific
bond
Catabolism of glycerophospholipids
43. Phospholipase A1 hydrolyses the ester
bond at position 1 of phospholipid
Phospholipase A2 hydrolyses the ester
bond at position 2 of phospholipid
Phospholipase A2 converts the phospho-
lipid into a lysophospholipid
44. Phospholipase B acts on lysophospho-
lipid
It removes the fatty acid from position 1
of the lysophospholipid
45.
46. The action of phospholipase A2 on
membrane phospholipids is important in
eicosanoid metabolism
The fatty acid at position 2 is usually a
polyunsaturated fatty acid
The liberated fatty acid is generally used
for eicosanoid synthesis
47. Phospholipase C hydrolyses the ester
bond between phosphate and glycerol
Phospholipase D hydrolyses the bond
between phosphate and nitrogenous base
The partially hydrolysed products can be
reused for synthesis of new phospholipids
48.
49. Sphingomyelin is synthesized from
ceramide and phosphatidyl choline
Ceramide is acyl sphingosine
Synthesis of sphingomyelin
50.
51. Sphingomyelin is catabolized by lyso-
somal sphingomyelinase
Sphingomyelin is hydrolysed into ceramide
and phosphoryl choline
Catabolism of sphingomyelin
52.
53. Fatty liver is a condition in which large
amounts of fat accumulate in the liver
This can later lead to serious disease
Some phospholipids have a role in
prevention of fatty liver
Lipotropic factors and fatty liver
54. Liver is the site for several pathways of
lipid metabolism
Most of the major lipids can be synthe-
sized and catabolized in the liver
Triglycerides are synthesized in liver, and
are transported out of liver as VLDL
55. Lipotropic factors are the compounds
required for transport of lipids out of liver
The lipotropic factors are choline,
methionine and betaine
Their deficiency causes abnormal
accumulation of triglycerides in liver
56. Normally, triglyceride content of liver is
not more than 5% of liver weight
When it exceeds 5%, the condition is
known as fatty liver
Excessive fat deposition in liver may
cause inflammation of liver cells
57. Inflammation of liver cells may lead to
their destruction
This may be followed by formation of
scar tissue in liver (fibrosis)
Extensive replacement of liver cells by
fibrous tissue results in cirrhosis of liver
58. Fatty liver:
Fat more
than 5%
Fibrosis:
Formation of
scar tissue
Cirrhosis:
Hardening of
liver tissue
Normal liver:
Fat less
than 5%
59. Fatty liver may be caused by:
Obesity
Diabetes mellitus
Severe protein deficiency
Deficiency of essential fatty acids
Hepatotoxic chemicals and drugs
60. Chronic alcoholism is the most important
cause of fatty liver and cirrhosis of liver
With a calorific value is 7 kcal/gm,
alcohol (ethanol) is rich in energy
After ingestion of alcohol, oxidation of
glucose and fatty acids decreases
Alcohol becomes the preferred source of
energy
61. Since fatty acids are not oxidized, they are
esterified with glycerol to form triglycerides
Increased synthesis of triglycerides in liver
leads to their accumulation in liver
This causes fatty liver (specially when
lipotropic factors are deficient)
62. Mechanisms by which
fatty liver is caused are:
Interference in phospholipid synthesis
Disruption of intracellular membranes
Interference in the synthesis of VLDL
Interference in the release of VLDL
63. Choline acts as a lipotropic factor as it is
required to form lecithin
Lecithin is a component of lipoproteins
that help in transport of lipids from liver
Lecithin is also the major component of
membranes
64. Lecithin deficiency may disrupt endo-
plasmic reticulum membrane
Apoprotein component of lipoproteins is
synthesized on endoplasmic reticulum
Disruption of membranes can disturb
VLDL synthesis in liver
65. Betaine and methionine act as lipotropic
factors indirectly
They provide methyl groups for the
synthesis of choline
66. Essential fatty acids also help in the
transport of lipids
They are required for the synthesis of
phospholipids
Fatty acid at C2 of glycerophospholipids
is usually an essential fatty acid