Media management

1. What is journalism?
The activity or profession of writing for newspapers or magazines or of broadcasting news on
radio or television.
Journalism is gathering, processing, and dissemination of news, and information related to news,
to an audience..
2. What is media?
Modern media comes in many different formats, including print media(books, magazines,
newspapers), television, movies, video games, music, cell phones, various kinds of software, and
the Internet. Each type of media involves both content, and also a device or object through which
that content is delivered.
3. Types of media
Print Media.The oldest media forms are newspapers, magazines, journals, newsletters,
and other printed material. These publications are collectively known as the print media. Although
print media readership has declined in the last few decades, many Americans still read a
newspaper every day or a newsmagazine on a regular basis. The influence of print media is
therefore significant. Regular readers of print media tend to be more likely to be politically active.
The Newspaper of Record
Because of its history of excellence and influence, the New York Times is sometimes called the
newspaper of record: If a story is not in the Times, it is not important. In 2003, however, the
newspaper suffered a major blow to its credibility when Times journalist Jayson Blair admitted
that he had fabricated some of his stories. The Times has since made extensive efforts to prevent
any similar scandals, but some readers have lost trust in the paper.
Broadcast Media
Broadcast media are news reports broadcast via radio and television. Television news is hugely
important in the United States because more Americans get their news from television broadcasts
than from any other source.
4.Objective of media
1.To entertain the people
2.To educate the people
3.To persuade the people
5.What is Management?
The act or skill of controlling and making decisions about a business, department, sports team, etc.
MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS:
The 4 basic management functions that make up the management process are described in the
following sections:
PLANNING
ORGANIZING
INFLUENCING
CONTROLLING.
PLANNING: Planning involves choosing tasks that must be performed to attain organizational
goals, outlining how the tasks must be performed, and indicating when they should be performed.
Planning activity focuses on attaining goals. Managers outline exactly what organizations should

do to be successful. Planning is concerned with the success of the organization in the short term as
well as in the long term.
ORGANIZING:
Organizing can be thought of as assigning the tasks developed in the planning stages, to various
individuals or groups within the organization. Organizing is to create a mechanism to put plans
into action.
People within the organization are given work assignments that contribute to the company’s goals.
Tasks are organized so that the output of each individual contributes to the success of departments,
which, in turn, contributes to the success of divisions, which ultimately contributes to the success
of the organization.
INFLUENCING:
Influencing is also referred to as motivating, leading or directing. Influencing can be defined as
guiding the activities of organization members in the direction that helps the organization move
towards the fulfillment of the goals.
The purpose of influencing is to increase productivity. Human-oriented work situations usually
generate higher levels of production over the long term than do task oriented work situations
because people find the latter type distasteful.
CONTROLLING:
Controlling is the following roles played by the manager:
Gather information that measures performance
Compare present performance to pre established performance norms.
Determine the next action plan and modifications for meeting the desired performance parameters.
Controlling is an ongoing process.
Management
"Manager" redirects here. For other uses, see Management (disambiguation) and Manager
(disambiguation).
Management in businesses and organizations is the function that coordinates the efforts of people
to accomplish goals and objectives by using available resources efficiently and effectively.
Management includes planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an
organization to accomplish the goal or target. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and
manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources, and natural
resources. Management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose objective is to study
social organization.
Levels of management
Most organizations have three management levels: first-level, middle-level, and top-level
managers.[citation needed] These managers are classified in a hierarchy of authority, and perform
different tasks. In many organizations, the number of managers in every level resembles a
pyramid. Each level is explained below in specifications of their different responsibilities and
likely job titles.[citation needed]
Top-level management Edit

The top consists of the board of directors (including non-executive directors and executive
directors), president, vice-president, CEOs and other members of the C-level executives. They are
responsible for controlling and overseeing the entire organization. They set a tone at the top and
develop strategic plans, company policies, and make decisions on the direction of the business. In
addition, top-level managers play a significant role in the mobilization of outside resources and
are accountable to the shareholders and general public.
The board of directors is typically primarily composed of non-executives which owe a fiduciary
duty to shareholders and are not closely involved in the day-to-day activities of the organization,
although this varies depending on the type (e.g., public versus private), size and culture of the
organization. These directors are theoretically liable for breaches of that duty and typically insured
under directors and officers liability insurance. Fortune 500 directors are estimated to spend 4.4
hours per week on board duties, and median compensation was $212,512 in 2010. The board sets
corporate strategy, makes major decisions such as major acquisitions,[25] and hires, evaluates, and
fires the top-level manager (Chief Executive Officer or CEO) and the CEO typically hires other
positions. However, board involvement in the hiring of other positions such as the Chief Financial
Officer (CFO) has increased.[26] In 2013, a survey of over 160 CEOs and directors of public and
private companies found that the top weaknesses of CEOs were "mentoring skills" and "board
engagement", and 10% of companies never evaluated the CEO.[27] The board may also have
certain employees (e.g., internal auditors) report to them or directly hire independent contractors;
for example, the board (through the audit committee) typically selects the auditor.
Helpful skills of top management vary by the type of organization but typically include[28] a
broad understanding competition, world economies, and politics. In addition, the CEO is
responsible for implementing and determining (within the board's framework) the broad policies
of the organization. Executive management accomplishes the day-to-day details, including:
instructions for preparation of department budgets, procedures, schedules; appointment of middle
level executives such as department managers; coordination of departments; media and
governmental relations; and shareholder communication.
Middle-level managers Edit
Consist of general managers, branch managers and department managers. They are accountable to
the top management for their department's function. They devote more time to organizational and
directional functions. Their roles can be emphasized as executing organizational plans in
conformance with the company's policies and the objectives of the top management, they define
and discuss information and policies from top management to lower management, and most
importantly they inspire and provide guidance to lower level managers towards better
performance.
Middle management is the midway management of a categorized organization, being secondary to
the senior management but above the deepest levels of operational members. An operational
manager may be well-thought-out the middle management, or may be categorized as non-
management operate, liable to the policy of the specific organization. Efficiency of the middle
level is vital in any organization, since they bridge the gap between top level and bottom level

staffs.
Their functions include:
Design and implement effective group and inter-group work and information systems.
Define and monitor group-level performance indicators.
Diagnose and resolve problems within and among work groups.
Design and implement reward systems that support cooperative behavior. They also make decision
and share ideas with top managers.
Lower-level managers Edit
Consist of supervisors, section leaders, foremen, etc. They focus on controlling and directing.
They usually have the responsibility of assigning employees tasks, guiding and supervising
employees on day-to-day activities, ensuring quality and quantity production, making
recommendations, suggestions, and up channeling employee problems, etc. First-level managers
are role models for employees that provide:
Basic supervision
Motivation
Career planning
Performance feedback
Training
6.What is SWOT analysis
A SWOT analysis (alternatively SWOT matrix) is a structured planning method used to evaluate
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or in a business venture.
A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a product, place, industry or person.
Strengths (internal, positive factors)
Strengths describe the positive attributes, tangible and intangible, internal to your organization.
They are within your control.
• What do you do well?
• What internal resources do you have?
• What advantages do you have over your competition?
• Do you have strong research and development capabilities? Manufacturing facilities?
• What other positive aspects, internal to your business, add value or offer you a competitive
advantage?
Weaknesses (internal, negative factors)
Weaknesses are aspects of your business that detract from the value you offer or place you at a
competitive disadvantage. You need to enhance these areas in order to compete with your best
competitor.
• What factors that are within your control detract from your ability to obtain or maintain a
competitive edge?
• What areas need improvement to accomplish your objectives or compete with your strongest
competitor?
• What does your business lack (for example, expertise or access to skills or technology)?
• Does your business have limited resources?
• Is your business in a poor location?

Opportunities (external, positive factors)
Opportunities are external attractive factors that represent reasons your business is likely to
prosper.
• What opportunities exist in your market or the environment that you can benefit from?
• Is the perception of your business positive?
• Has there been recent market growth or have there been other changes in the market the
create an opportunity?
• Is the opportunity ongoing, or is there just a window for it? In other words, how critical is
your timing?
Threats (external, negative factors)
Threats include external factors beyond your control that could place your strategy, or the business
itself, at risk. You have no control over these, but you may benefit by having contingency plans to
address them if they should occur.
• Who are your existing or potential competitors?
• What factors beyond your control could place your business at risk?
• Are there challenges created by an unfavorable trend or development that may lead to
A SWOT analysis, with its four elements in a 2×2 matrix.
A SWOT analysis (alternatively SWOT matrix) is a structured planning method used to
evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats involved in a project or in a
business venture. A SWOT analysis can be carried out for a product, place, industry or
person. It involves specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying
the internal and external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieve that objective.
Some authors credit SWOT to Albert Humphrey, who led a convention at the Stanford
Research Institute (now SRI International) in the 1960s and 1970s using data from Fortune
500 companies.[1][2] However, Humphrey himself does not claim the creation of SWOT, and
the origins remain obscure. The degree to which the internal environment of the firm matches
with the external environment is expressed by the concept of strategic fit.
Strengths: characteristics of the business or project that give it an advantage over others.
Weaknesses: characteristics that place the business or project at a disadvantage relative to
others.
Opportunities: elements that the business or project could exploit to its advantage.
Threats: elements in the environment that could cause trouble for the business or project.
Identification of SWOTs is important because they can inform later steps in planning to
achieve the objective.
First, the decision makers should consider whether the objective is attainable, given the
SWOTs. If the objective is not attainable a different objective must be selected and the process
repeated.
Users of SWOT analysis need to ask and answer questions that generate meaningful
information for each category (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) to make the

analysis useful and find their competitive advantage.
Internal and external factors Edit
So it is said that if you know your enemies and know yourself, you can win a hundred battles
without a single loss. If you only know yourself, but not your opponent, you may win or may
lose. If you know neither yourself nor your enemy, you will always endanger yourself.
The Art of War by Sun Tzu
SWOT analysis aims to identify the key internal and external factors seen as important to
achieving an objective. SWOT analysis groups key pieces of information into two main
categories:
internal factors – the strengths and weaknesses internal to the organization
external factors – the opportunities and threats presented by the environment external to the
organization
Analysis may view the internal factors as strengths or as weaknesses depending upon their
effect on the organization's objectives. What may represent strengths with respect to one
objective may be weaknesses (distractions, competition) for another objective. The factors
may include all of the 4Ps; as well as personnel, finance, manufacturing capabilities, and so
on.
The external factors may include macroeconomic matters, technological change, legislation,
and sociocultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace or in competitive position.
The results are often presented in the form of a matrix.
SWOT analysis is just one method of categorization and has its own weaknesses. For
example, it may tend to persuade its users to compile lists rather than to think about actual
important factors in achieving objectives. It also presents the resulting lists uncritically and
without clear prioritization so that, for example, weak opportunities may appear to balance
strong threats.
It is prudent not to eliminate any candidate SWOT entry too quickly. The importance of
individual SWOTs will be revealed by the value of the strategies they generate. A SWOT item
that produces valuable strategies is important. A SWOT item that generates no strategies is
not important.
Use Edit
The usefulness of SWOT analysis is not limited to profit-seeking organizations. SWOT
analysis may be used in any decision-making situation when a desired end-state (objective) is
defined. Examples include: non-profit organizations, governmental units, and individuals.
SWOT analysis may also be used in pre-crisis planning and preventive crisis management.
SWOT analysis may also be used in creating a recommendation during a viability

study/survey.
Strategy building Edit
SWOT analysis can be used effectively to build organization or personal strategy. Steps
necessary to execute strategy-oriented analysis involve: identification of internal and
external factors (using popular 2x2 matrix), selection and evaluation of the most important
factors and identification of relations existing between internal and external features.[3]
For instance: strong relations between strengths and opportunities can suggest good
condition of the company and allow using aggressive strategy. On the other hand, strong
interaction between weaknesses and threats could be analyzed as potential warning and
advise for using defensive strategy.[citation needed]
Matching and converting Edit
One way of utilizing SWOT is matching and converting. Matching is used to find competitive
advantage by matching the strengths to opportunities. Converting is to apply conversion
strategies to convert weaknesses or threats into strengths or opportunities. An example of
conversion strategy is to find new markets. If the threats or weaknesses cannot be converted,
a company should try to minimize or avoid them.[4]
CriticismEdit
Some findings from Menon et al. (1999)[5] and Hill and Westbrook (1997)[6] have suggested
that SWOT may harm performance, and that "no-one subsequently used the outputs within
the later stages of the strategy ".
SWOT variants Edit
Various complementary analyses to SWOT have been proposed, such as the Growth-share
matrix and Porter five forces analysis.
TOWS Edit
Heinz Weihrich said that some users found it difficult to translate the results of the SWOT
analysis into meaningful actions that could be adopted within the wider corporate strategy.
He introduced the TOWS Matrix, a conceptual framework that helps in finding the most
efficient actions.[7]
SWOT landscape analysis Edit
The SWOT-landscape systematically deploys the relationships between overall objective and
underlying SWOT-factors and provides an interactive, query-able 3D landscape.
The SWOT-landscape grabs different managerial situations by visualizing and foreseeing the
dynamic performance of comparable objects according to findings by Brendan Kitts, Leif
Edvinsson and Tord Beding (2000).[8]

Changes in relative performance are continually identified. Projects (or other units of
measurements) that could be potential risk or opportunity objects are highlighted.
SWOT-landscape also indicates which underlying strength/weakness factors that have had or
likely will have highest influence in the context of value in use (for ex. capital value
fluctuations).
Corporate planning Edit
As part of the development of strategies and plans to enable the organization to achieve its
objectives, that organization will use a systematic/rigorous process known as corporate
planning. SWOT alongside PEST/PESTLE can be used as a basis for the analysis of business
and environmental factors.[9]
Set objectives – defining what the organization is going to do
Environmental scanning
Internal appraisals of the organization's SWOT, this needs to include an assessment of the
present situation as well as a portfolio of products/services and an analysis of the
product/service life cycle
Analysis of existing strategies, this should determine relevance from the results of an
internal/external appraisal. This may include gap analysis which will look at environmental
factors
Strategic Issues defined – key factors in the development of a corporate plan which needs to
be addressed by the organization
Develop new/revised strategies – revised analysis of strategic issues may mean the objectives
need to change
Establish critical success factors – the achievement of objectives and strategy implementation
Preparation of operational, resource, projects plans for strategy implementation
Monitoring results – mapping against plans, taking corrective action which may mean
amending objectives/strategies.[10]
Marketing Edit
Main article: Marketing management
In many competitor analyses, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the
market, focusing especially on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using
SWOT analysis. Marketing managers will examine each competitor's cost structure, sources
of profits, resources and competencies, competitive positioning and product differentiation,
degree of vertical integration, historical responses to industry developments, and other
factors.
Marketing management often finds it necessary to invest in research to collect the data
required to perform accurate marketing analysis. Accordingly, management often conducts
market research (alternately marketing research) to obtain this information. Marketers
employ a variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some of the more common

include:
Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups
Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
Experimental techniques such as test markets
Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site) observation
Marketing managers may also design and oversee various environmental scanning and
competitive intelligence processes to help identify trends and inform the company's marketing
analysis.
Below is an example SWOT analysis of a market position of a small management consultancy
with specialism in HRM.[10]
StrengthsWeaknesses Opportunities Threats
Reputation in marketplace Shortage of consultants at operating level rather than partner
levelWell established position with a well defined market niche Large consultancies
operating at a minor level
Expertise at partner level in HRM consultancy Unable to deal with multi-disciplinary
assignments because of size or lack of ability Identified market for consultancy in areas
other than HRM Other small consultancies looking to invade the marketplace
SWOT Analysis in community organization Edit
The SWOT analysis has been utilized in community work as a tool to identify positive and
negative factors within organizations, communities, and the broader society that promote or
inhibit successful implementation of social services and social change efforts.[11] It is used
as a preliminary resource, assessing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in a
community served by a nonprofit or community organization.[12] This organizing tool is best
used in collaboration with community workers and/or community members before developing
goals and objectives for a program design or implementing an organizing strategy.The SWOT
analysis is a part of the planning for social change process and will not provide a strategic
plan if used by itself. After a SWOT analysis is completed a social change organization can
turn the SWOT list into a series of recommendations to consider before developing a strategic
plan.[13]
one example of a SWOT Analysis used in community organizing
A simple SWOT Analysis used in Community Organizing
Strengths and Weaknesses: These are the internal factors within an organization.
Human resources [11]
Finances
Internal advantages/disadvantages of the Organization [11]
Physical resources [11]
Experiences including what has worked or has not worked in the past

Opportunities and Threats: These are external factors stemming from community or societal
forces.
Trends (new research)
Society’s cultural, political, and economic ideology[citation needed]
Funding sources [11]
Current events [11]
Societal oppression [11]
Although the SWOT analysis was originally designed as an organizational method for
business and industries, it has been replicated in various community work as a tool for
identifying external and internal support to combat internal and external opposition.[11] The
SWOT analysis is necessary to provide direction to the next stages of the change process.[14]
It has been utilized by community organizers and community members to further social
justice in the context of Social Work practice.
Application in community organization Edit
Elements to consider Edit
Elements to consider in a SWOT analysis include understanding the community that a
particular organization is working with. This can be done via public forums, listening
campaigns, and informational interviews. Data collection will help inform the community
members and workers when developing the SWOT analysis. A needs and assets assessment
are tooling that can be used in order to identify the needs and existing resources of the
community. When these assessments are done and data has been collected, an analysis of the
community can be made which will inform the SWOT analysis.[11]
Steps for implementation Edit
A SWOT analysis is best developed in a group setting such as a work or community meeting.
A facilitator can conduct the meeting by first explaining what a SWOT analysis is as well as
identifying the meaning of each term.[11]
One way of facilitating the development of a SWOT analysis includes developing an example
SWOT with the larger group then separating each group into smaller teams to present to the
larger group after set amount of time.[11] This allows for individuals, who may be silenced in
a larger group setting, to contribute. Once the allotted time is up, the facilitator may record
all the factors of each group onto a large document such as a poster board and then the large
group, as a collective, can go work through each threat and weaknesses to explore options
that may be used to combat negative forces with the strengths and opportunities present
within the organization and community.[11] A SWOT meeting allows participants to
creatively brainstorm, identify obstacles and strategize possibly solutions/way forward to
these limitations.
When to use SWOT Edit
The use of a SWOT analysis by a community organization are as follows: to organize
information, provide insight into barriers[15] that may be present while engaging in social

change processes, and identify strengths available that can be activated to counteract these
barriers.
A SWOT analysis can be used to:
Explore new solutions to problems [11]
Identify barriers that will limit goals/objectives [11]
Decide on direction that will be most effective [11]
Reveal possibilities and limitations for change[11]
To revise plans to best navigate systems, communities, and organizations
As a brainstorming and recording device as a means of communication[15]
To enhance “credibility of interpretation” to be utilized in presentation to leaders or key
supporters.[12]
Benefits
The SWOT analysis in Social Work practice framework is beneficial because it helps
organizations decide whether or not an objective is obtainable and therefore enables
organizations to set achievable goals, objectives, and steps to further the social change or
community development effort.[16] It enables organizers to take visions and produce
practical and efficient outcomes in order to effect long-lasting change, and it helps
organizations gather meaningful information in order to maximize their potential.[16]
Completing a SWOT analysis is a useful process regarding the consideration of key
organizational priorities, such as gender and cultural diversity, and fundraising objectives.
[17]
Limitations Edit
Critiques include the misuse of the SWOT analysis as a technique that can be quickly
designed without critical thought leading to a misrepresentation of Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats within an organization's internal and external surroundings.[18]
Another limitation includes the development of a SWOT analysis simply to defend previously
decided goals and objectives. This misuse leads to limitations on brainstorming possibilities
and "real" identification of barriers. This misuse also places the organization’s interest above
the well being of the community. Further, a SWOT analysis should be developed as a
collaborative with a variety of contributions made by participants including community
members. The design of a SWOT analysis by one or two community workers is limiting to the
realities of the forces specifically external factors, and devalues the possible contributions of
community members.
7 .Goal setting
Once you've created your vision statement for weight-loss, you probably know the general
direction you want to move. The next step is to work out the particular short- and intermediate-
term goals that will get you moving in that direction, followed by concrete action steps you can
take right now to get going.

The 6 Characteristics of Effective Goals
1. Challenging: Your goals should be realistic and suited to your present capabilities. You can’t
go from habitual couch potato to world-class athlete overnight, or recover the “look” you had in
your 20's if you’re pushing 60 right now. Small, progressive steps toward reasonable, long-term
goals are crucial to success. But your goals should also push you to extend yourself beyond where
you already are.Otherwise you will get bored and quit the game.
2.Attainable: Don't take the challenging characteristic (above) too far. Make sure you can actually
achieve what you're setting out to do. Otherwise, you will get frustrated and quit the game.
3, Specific: Trying to "do your best" or "do better" is like trying to eat the hole in a donut. There's
nothing there to chew on or digest. You need to define some very specific, concrete, and
measurable action-steps that tell you what your goal looks like in real-life terms. Include how you
will measure your results so you can tell whether you are getting anywhere.
4.Time-limited: Goals need to come with deadlines, due dates, and payoff schedules. Otherwise,
they'll fade into the background with your daily hubbub, and you'll quit playing the game. If your
long-term goal is going to take a while to reach, create some intermediate- and short-term goals.
These will make your larger goal seem less daunting and keep you focused on what you can do
here and now to help yourself get there.
2. Positive: Goals should always be framed in positive terms. Humans are not designed to
white-knuckle their way through life, always trying to not do things or to avoid certain thoughts,
feelings, actions or circumstances. We are much better at approaching what we DO want than
avoiding what we don't want.
3. Flexible: Good strategies and goals are always flexible, because nothing in this world stays
the same for very long, and staying alive and on course means being able to adapt to changing
circumstances.
Management by objectives
Management by objectives (MBO), also known as management by results (MBR), is a process of
defining objectives within an organization so that management and employees agree to the
objectives and understand what they need to do in the organization in order to achieve them. The
term "management by objectives" was first popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The
Practice of Management.[1]
The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and decision making.
An important part of the MBO is the measurement and the comparison of the employee’s actual
performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with
the goal setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to
fulfill their responsibilities.
According to George S. Odiorne, the system of management by objectives can be described as a
process whereby the superior and subordinate jointly identify its common goals, define each
individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him, and use these
measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members.[2]

Features and advantages
The principle of MBO is for employees to have a clear understanding of their roles and the
responsibilities expected of them, so they can understand how their activities relate to the
achievement of the organization's goals. MBO also places importance on fulfilling the personal
goals of each employee.
Proponents argue that benefits of MBO include:
Motivation – Involving employees in the whole process of goal setting and increasing employee
empowerment. This increases employee job satisfaction and commitment.
Better communication and coordination – Frequent reviews and interactions between superiors
and subordinates help to maintain harmonious relationships within the organization and also to
solve problems.
Clarity of goals
Subordinates tend to have a higher commitment to objectives they set for themselves than those
imposed on them by another person.
Managers can ensure that objectives of the subordinates are linked to the organization's objectives.
Common goal for whole organization means it is a unifying, directive principle of management.
Application in practice Edit
Objectives can be set in all domains of activities, such as production, marketing, services, sales,
R&D, human resources, finance, and information systems. Some objectives are collective, for a
whole department or the whole company, while others can be individualised.
In the MBO paradigm, managers determine the mission and the strategic goals of the enterprise.
The goals set by top-level managers are based on an analysis of what can and should be
accomplished by the organisation within a specific period of time. The functions of these
managers can be centralised by appointing a project manager who can monitor and control
activities of the various departments. If this cannot be done or is not desirable, each manager's
contributions to the organisational goal should be clearly spelled out.[citation needed]
Objectives need quantifying and monitoring. Reliable management information systems are
needed to establish relevant objectives and monitor their "reach ratio" in an objective way.[citation
needed] Pay incentives (bonuses) are often linked to results in reaching the objectives.
The mnemonic S.M.A.R.T. is associated with the process of setting objectives in this paradigm.
"SMART" objectives are:
Specific
Measurable
Agreed/Achievable/Attainable
Realistic/Responsible/Receivable
Time-bound

The aphorism "What gets measured gets done" is aligned with the MBO philosophy.
Arguments against Edit
MBO has its detractors and attention notably among them W. Edwards Deming, who argued that a
lack of understanding of systems commonly results in the misapplication of objectives.[3]
Additionally, Deming stated that setting production targets will encourage workers to meet those
targets through whatever means necessary, which usually results in poor quality.[4]
Point 7 of Deming's key principles encourages managers to abandon objectives in favour of
leadership because he felt that a leader with an understanding of systems was more likely to guide
workers to an appropriate solution than the incentive of an objective. Deming also pointed out that
Drucker warned managers that a systemic view was required [5] and felt that Drucker's warning
went largely unheeded by the practitioners of MBO.
There are several limitations to the assumptive base underlying the impact of managing by
objectives,[citation needed] including:
It over-emphasizes the setting of goals over the working of a plan as a driver of outcomes.
It under-emphasizes the importance of the environment or context in which the goals are set.
That context includes everything from the availability and quality of resources, to relative buy-in
by leadership and stake-holders. As an example of the influence of management buy-in as a
contextual influencer, in a 1991 comprehensive review of thirty years of research on the impact of
Management by Objectives, Robert Rodgers and John Hunter concluded that companies whose
CEOs demonstrated high commitment to MBO showed, on average, a 56% gain in productivity.
Companies with CEOs who showed low commitment only saw a 6% gain in productivity.[citation
needed]
When this approach is not properly set, agreed and managed by organizations, self-centered
employees might be prone to distort results, falsely representing achievement of targets that were
set in a short-term, narrow fashion. In this case, managing by objectives would be
counterproductive.

CH#2 MEDIA MANAGEMENT
News agency
Reuters, Bonn 1988
A news agency is an organization that gathers news reports and sells them to subscribing news
organizations, such as newspapers, magazines and radio and television broadcasters. A news
agency may also be referred to as a wire service, newswire, or news service.
There are many news agencies around the world, but there are global news agencies with offices
in most countries of the world and cover all areas of information: Agence France-Presse,
Associated Press and Reuters. All three began with and continue to operate on a basic philosophy
of providing a single objective news feed to all subscribers; they do not provide separate feeds for
conservative or liberal newspapers. Jonathan Fenby explains the philosophy:
[T]o achieve such wide acceptability, the agencies avoid overt partiality. Demonstrably correct
information is their stock in trade. Traditionally, they report at a reduced level of responsibility,
attributing their information to a spokesman, the press, or other sources. They avoid making
judgments and steer clear of doubt and ambiguity. Though their founders did not use the word,
objectivity is the philosophical basis for their enterprises – or failing that, widely acceptable
neutrality.[1]
History
Only a few large newspapers could afford bureaus outside their home city. They relied instead on
news agencies, especially Havas in France and the Associated Press in the United States. Former
Havas employees founded Reuters in Britain and Wolff in Germany; Havas is now Agence
France-Presse (AFP).[2] For international news, the agencies pooled their resources, so that
Havas, for example, covered the French Empire, South America and the Balkans and shared the
news with the other national agencies. In France the typical contract with Havas provided a
provincial newspaper with 1800 lines of telegraphed text daily, for an annual subscription rate of
10,000 francs. Other agencies provided features and fiction for their subscribers.[3]

In the 1830s, France had several specialized agencies. Agence Havas was founded in 1835 by a
Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas, to supply news about France to
foreign customers. In the 1840s, Havas gradually incorporated other French agencies into his
agency. Agence Havas evolved into Agence France-Presse (AFP).[4] Two of his employees,
Bernhard Wolff and Paul Julius Reuter, later set up rival news agencies, Wolffs Telegraphisches
Bureau in 1849 in Berlin and Reuters in 1851 in London. Guglielmo Stefani founded the Agenzia
Stefani, which became the most important press agency in Italy from the mid-19th century to
World War II, in Turin in 1853.
The development of the telegraph in the 1850s led to the creation of strong national agencies in
England, Germany, Austria and the United States. But despite the efforts of governments, through
telegraph laws of the in 1878 in France, inspired by the British Telegraph Act of 1869 which
paved the way for the nationalisation of telegraph companies and their operations, the cost of
telegraph remained high.
In the United States, the judgment in Inter Ocean Publishing v. Associated Press facilitated
competition by requiring agencies to accept all newspapers wishing to join. As a result of the
increasing newspapers, the Associated Press was now challenged by the creation of United Press
Associations in 1907 and International News Service by newspaper publisher William Randolph
Hearst in 1909. Driven by the huge U.S. domestic market, boosted by the runaway success of
radio, all three major agencies required the dismantling of the "cartel agencies" through the
Agreement of 26 August 1927. They were concerned about the success of U.S. agencies from
other European countries which sought to create national agencies after the First World War.
Reuters had been weakened by war censorship, which promoted the creation of cooperative
newspapers in the Commonwealth and national agencies in Asia, two of its strong areas. After the
Second World War, the movement for the creation of national agencies accelerated, when
accessing the independence of former colonies, the national agencies were operated by the State.
Reuters, became cooperative, managed a breakthrough in finance, and helped to reduce the
number of U.S. agencies from three to one, along with the internationalization of the Spanish EFE
and the globalization of Agence France-Presse.
In 1924, Benito Mussolini placed Agenzia Stefani under the direction of Manlio Morgagni, who
expanded the agency's reach significantly both within Italy and abroad. Agenzia Stefani was
dissolved in 1945, and its technical structure and organization were transferred to the new Agenzia
Nazionale Stampa Associata (ANSA). Wolffs was taken over by the Nazi regime in 1934, and
Reuters continues to operate as a major international news agency today.[5] In 1865, Reuter and
Wolff signed agreements with Havas's sons, forming a cartel designating exclusive reporting zones
for each of their agencies within Europe.[6]
Since the 1960s, the major agencies were provided with new opportunities in television and
magazine, and news agencies delivered specialized production of images and photos, the demand
for which is constantly increasing. In France, for example, they account for over two-thirds of
national market.[7]

Commercial services Edit
News agencies can be corporations that sell news (e.g., Press Association, Thomson Reuters and
United Press International). Other agencies work cooperatively with large media companies,
generating their news centrally and sharing local news stories the major news agencies may
choose to pick up and redistribute (i.e., Associated Press (AP), Agence France-Presse (AFP) or
American Press Agency (APA)).
Governments may also control news agencies: China (Xinhua), Russia (ITAR-TASS) and other
countries also have government-funded news agencies which also use information from other
agencies as well.[8]
Commercial newswire services charge businesses to distribute their news (e.g., Business Wire,
GlobeNewswire, Marketwire, PR Newswire, PR Web, PR NewsChannel, Pressat, CisionWire, and
ABN Newswire).
The major news agencies generally prepare hard news stories and feature articles that can be used
by other news organizations with little or no modification, and then sell them to other news
organizations. They provide these articles in bulk electronically through wire services (originally
they used telegraphy; today they frequently use the Internet). Corporations, individuals, analysts,
and intelligence agencies may also subscribe.
News sources, collectively, described as alternative media provide reporting which emphasizes a
self-defined "non-corporate view" as a contrast to the points of view expressed in corporate media
and government-generated news releases. Internet-based alternative news agencies form one
component of these sources.
Associations Edit
There are several different associations of news agencies. EANA is the European Alliance of Press
Agencies, while the OANA is an association of news agencies of the Asia-Pacific region. MINDS
is a global network of leading news agencies collaborating in new media business.
Major news agencies
American Broadcasting Company ABC news (USA)
ActionNews ACN (ITA)
Australian Broadcasting Corporation ABC (AUS)
Agence France-Presse AFP (FRA)
Agência Brasil ABR (BRA)
Agència Catalana de Notícies ACN (ESP)
Agencia EFE (ESP)
Agen ia Română de Presă AGERPRES (ROU)ț
Agenzia Giornalistica Italia AGI (ITA)

Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata ANSA (ITA)
AKIpress news agency (KGZ)
Algemeen Nederlands Persbureau ANP (NLD)
Al Jazeera (QAT)
All Headline News AHN (USA)
Anadolu Agency (AA)
Antara (IDN)
Armenpress (ARM)
Asian News International ANI
Associated Press AP (USA)
Associated Press of Pakistan
Athens News Agency-Macedonian Press Agency ANA
Australian Associated Press AAP (AUS)
Public relations
For the rock band, see Public Relations.
"Public information" redirects here. It is not to be confused with Public sector information.
Public relations (PR) is the practice of managing the spread of information between an individual
or an organization (such as a business, government agency, or a nonprofit organization) and the
public.[1] Public relations may include an organization or individual gaining exposure to their
audiences using topics of public interest and news items that do not require direct payment.[2]
This differentiates it from advertising as a form of marketing communications. Public relations is
the idea of creating coverage for clients for free, rather than marketing[3] or advertising.[4] An
example of good public relations would be generating an article featuring a client, rather than
paying for the client to be advertised next to the article.[5] The aim of public relations is to inform
the public, prospective customers, investors, partners, employees and other stakeholders and
ultimately persuade them to maintain a certain view about the organization, its leadership,
products, or political decisions. Public relations professionals typically work for PR and marketing
firms, businesses and companies, government, government agencies and public officials as PIOs
and nongovernmental organizations and nonprofit organizations. Jobs central to Public Relations
include account coordinator, account executive, account supervisor and media relations manager.
[6] Those interested into public relations should have strong written and speaking abilities, be
team focused and creative. A masters in strategic communication will enhance a marketing or
communication BS or BA and make prospective employers more competitive in the job market.
Public relations specialists establish and maintain relationships with an organization's target
audience, the media and other opinion leaders. Common responsibilities include designing
communications campaigns, writing news releases and other content for news, working with the
press, arranging interviews for company spokespeople, writing speeches for company leaders,
acting as organization's spokesperson, preparing clients for press conferences, media interviews
and speeches, writing website and social media content, managing company reputation (crisis
management), managing internal communications, and marketing activities like brand awareness

and event management [7] Success in the field of public relations requires a deep understanding of
the interests and concerns of each of the client's many publics. The public relations professional
must know how to effectively address those concerns using the most powerful tool of the public
relations trade, which is publicity.[8]
Definition Edit
Ivy Lee, the man who turned around the Rockefeller name and image, and his friend, Edward
Louis Bernays, established the first definition of public relations in the early 1900s as follows: "a
management function, which tabulates public attitudes, defines the policies, procedures and
interests of an organization... followed by executing a program of action to earn public
understanding and acceptance."[citation needed] However, when PR pioneer Ivy Lee was later
asked about his role in a hearing with the United Transit Commission, he said "I have never been
able to find a satisfactory phrase to describe what I do."[9] In 1948, historian Eric Goldman noted
that the definition of public relations in Webster's would be "disputed by both practitioners and
critics in the field."[9]
According to Edward Bernays, the public relations counsel is the agent working with both modern
media of communications and group formations of society in order to provide ideas to the public’s
consciousness. Furthermore, he is also concerned with ideologies and courses of actions as well as
material goods and services and public utilities and industrial associations and large trade groups
for which it secures popular support.[10]
In August 1978, the World Assembly of Public Relations Associations defined the field as
"the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their consequences, counseling
organizational leaders and implementing planned programs of action, which will serve both the
organization and the public interest."[11]
Public Relations Society of America, a professional trade association,[12] defined public relations
in 1982 as:
"Public relations helps an organization and its publics adapt mutually to each other."[13]
In 2011 and 2012, the PRSA developed a crowd-sourced definition:
"Public relations is a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships
between organizations and their publics."[14]
Public relations can also be defined as the practice of managing communication between an
organization and its publics.[15]
History Edit

Main article: History of public relations
Most textbooks consider the establishment of the Publicity Bureau in 1900 to be the founding of
the public relations profession. However academics have found early forms of public influence
and communications management in ancient civilizations, during the settling of the New World
and during the movement to abolish slavery in England. Basil Clark is considered the founder of
public relations in the United Kingdom for his establishment of Editorial Services in 1924.
Propaganda was used by the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and others to rally for
domestic support and demonize enemies during the World Wars, which led to more sophisticated
commercial publicity efforts as public relations talent entered the private sector. Most historians
believe public relations became established first in the US by Ivy Lee or Edward Bernays, then
spread internationally. Many American companies with PR departments spread the practice to
Europe when they created European subsidiaries as a result of the Marshall plan.
The second half of the 1900s is considered the professional development building era of public
relations. Trade associations, PR news magazines, international PR agencies and academic
principles for the profession were established. In the early 2000s, press release services began
offering social media press releases. The Cluetrain Manifesto, which predicted the impact of social
media in 1999, was controversial in its time, but by 2006 the effect of social media and new
internet technologies became broadly accepted.
Salaries and growth
Tactics Edit
Public relations professionals present the face of an organization or individual, usually to
articulate its objectives and official views on issues of relevance, primarily to the media. Public
relations contributes to the way an organization is perceived by influencing the media and
maintaining relationships with stakeholders. According to Dr. Jacquie L’Etang from Queen
Margaret University, public relations professionals can be viewed as "discourse workers
specializing in communication and the presentation of argument and employing rhetorical
strategies to achieve managerial aims."[24]
Specific public relations disciplines include:
Financial public relations – communicating financial results and business strategy
Consumer/lifestyle public relations – gaining publicity for a particular product or service
Crisis communication – responding in a crisis
Internal communications – communicating within the company itself
Government relations – engaging government departments to influence public policy
Food-centric relations – communicating specific information centered on foods, beverages and
wine.
Media Relations – a public relations function that involves building and maintaining close
relationships with the news media so that they can sell and promote a business.

Building and managing relationships with those who influence an organization or individual’s
audiences has a central role in doing public relations.[25][26] After a public relations practitioner
has been working in the field, they accumulate a list of relationships that become an asset,
especially for those in media relations.
Within each discipline, typical activities include publicity events, speaking opportunities, press
releases, newsletters, blogs, social media, press kits and outbound communication to members of
the press. Video and audio news releases (VNRs and ANRs) are often produced and distributed to
TV outlets in hopes they will be used as regular program content.
Audience targeting Edit
A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience and to tailor
messages to be relevant to each audience.[27] Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and
stakeholders common to a public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but
complementary messages. These messages however should be relevant to each other, thus creating
a consistency to the overall message and theme. Audience targeting tactics are important for public
relations practitioners because they face all kinds of problems: low visibility, lack of public
understanding, opposition from critics and insufficient support from funding sources.[28]
On the other hand, stakeholder theory identifies people who have a stake in a given institution or
issue.[29] All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive stakeholders), but not all stakeholders
are audiences. For example, if a charity commissions a public relations agency to create an
advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease, the charity and the people with
the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to donate money. Public
relations experts possess deep skills in media relations, market positioning and branding. They are
powerful agents that help clients deliver clear, unambiguous information to a target audience that
matters to them.[30]
Messaging Edit
Messaging is the process of creating a consistent story around a product, person, company or
service. Messaging aims to avoid having readers receive contradictory or confusing information
that will instill doubt in their purchasing choice or other decisions that have an impact on the
company. Brands aim to have the same problem statement, industry viewpoint or brand perception
shared across sources and media.
Social media marketing Edit
Main article: Digital marketing
Digital marketing is the use of Internet tools and technologies such as search engines, Web 2.0
social bookmarking, new media relations, blogging and social media marketing. Interactive PR
allows companies and organizations to disseminate information without relying solely on
mainstream publications and communicate directly with the public, customers and prospects.
PR practitioners have always relied on the media such as TV, radio and magazines, to promote
their ideas and messages tailored specifically to a target audience. Social media marketing is not

only a new way to achieve that goal, it is also a continuation of a strategy that existed for decades.
Lister et al. said that "Digital media can be seen as a continuation and extension of a principal or
technique that was already in place".[31]
PR professionals are well aware of the fact that digital technology is used in a practically different
way than before. For instance, cellphones are no longer just devices we use to talk to one another.
They are also used for online shopping, dating, learning and getting the most up to date news
around the world.[32]
As digital technology has evolved, the methods to measure effective online public relations
effectiveness have improved. The Public Relations Society of America, which has been
developing PR strategies since 1947, identified 5 steps to measure online public relations
effectiveness.
Engagement: Measure the number of people who engaged with an item (social shares, likes and
comments).
Impressions: Measure the number of people who may have viewed an item.
Items: Measure any content (blog posts, articles, etc.) that originally appeared as digital media.
Mentions: Measure how many online items mention the brand, organization, or product.
Reach: Measure how far the pr campaign managed to penetrate overall and in terms of a particular
audience.[33]
Other techniques Edit
Litigation public relations is the management of the communication process during the course of
any legal dispute or adjudicatory processing so as to affect the outcome or its impact on the
client’s overall reputation (Haggerty, 2003).
Ethics Edit
Public Relations professionals both serve the public's interest and private interests of businesses,
associations, non-profit organizations and governments. This dual obligation gave rise to heated
debates among scholars of the discipline and practitioners over its fundamental values. This
conflict represents the main ethical predicament of public relations.[34] In 2000, the Public
Relations Society of America (PRSA) responded to the controversy by acknowledging in its new
code of ethics "advocacy" – for the first time – as a core value of the discipline.[34]
The field of public relations is generally highly un-regulated, but many professionals voluntarily
adhere to the code of conduct of one or more professional bodies to avoid exposure for ethical
violations.[35] The Chartered Institute of Public Relations, the Public Relations Society of
America and The Institute of Public Relations are a few organizations that publish an ethical code.
Still, Edelman's 2003 semi-annual trust survey found that only 20 percent of survey respondents
from the public believed paid communicators within a company were credible.[36] Public
relations people are growing increasingly concerned with their company’s marketing practices,
questioning whether they agree with the company’s social responsibility. They seek more
influence over marketing and more of a counseling and policy-making role. On the other hand,

marketing people are increasingly interested in incorporating publicity as a tool within the realm
marketing.[37]
According to Scott Cutlip, the social justification for public relations is the right for an
organization to have a fair hearing of their point of view in the public forum, but to obtain such a
hearing for their ideas requires a skilled advocate.[38]
Spin Edit
Main article: Spin (public relations)
Spin has been interpreted historically to mean overt deceit meant to manipulate the public, but
since the 1990s has shifted to describing a "polishing of the truth."[39] Today spin refers to
providing a certain interpretation of information meant to sway public opinion.[40] Companies
may use spin to create the appearance of the company or other events are going in a slightly
different direction than they actually are.[39] Within the field of public relations, spin is seen as a
derogatory term, interpreted by professionals as meaning blatant deceit and manipulation.[41][42]
Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called "spin doctors."
In Stuart Ewen’s PR! A Social History of Spin, he argues that public relations can be a real menace
to democracy as it renders the public discourse powerless. Corporations are able to hire public
relations professionals and transmit their messages through the media channels and exercise a
huge amount of influence upon the individual who is defenseless against such a powerful force.
He claims that public relations is a weapon for capitalist deception and the best way to resist is to
become media literate and use critical thinking when interpreting the various mediated messages.
[43]
The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions
(cherry picking), the so-called "non-denial denial," phrasing that in a way presumes unproven
truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity
in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of
certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news.
Negative Edit
See also: Negative campaigning
Negative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR) and in some earlier writing
"Black PR", is a process of destroying the target's reputation and/or corporate identity. The
objective in DPR is to discredit someone else, who may pose a threat to the client's business or be
a political rival. DPR may rely on IT security, industrial espionage, social engineering and
competitive intelligence. Common techniques include using dirty secrets from the target,
producing misleading facts to fool a competitor.[44][45][46][47] In politics, a decision to use
negative PR is also known as negative campaigning.
Politics and civil society Edit
In Propaganda (1928), Bernays argued that the manipulation of public opinion was a necessary
part of democracy.[48] In public relations, lobby groups are created to influence government

policy, corporate policy or public opinion, typically in a way that benefits the sponsoring
organization.
In fact, Edward Bernays stresses that we are in fact dominated in almost every aspect of our lives,
by a relatively small number of persons who have mastered the ‘mental processes and social
patterns of the masses,’ which include our behavior, political and economic spheres or our morals.
[49] In theory, each individual chooses his own opinion on behavior and public issues. However,
in practice, it is impossible for one to study all variables and approaches of a particular question
and come to a conclusion without any external influence. This is the reason why the society has
agreed upon an ‘invisible government’ to interpret on our behalf information and narrow the
choice field to a more practical scale.[50]
When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base, it is known as a front group.[51]
Front groups are a form of astroturfing, because they intend to sway the public or the government
without disclosing their financial connection to corporate or political interests. They create a fake
grass-roots movement by giving the appearance of a trusted organization that serves the public,
when they actually serve their sponsors.
Politicians also employ public relations professionals to help project their views, policies and even
personalities to their best advantages.[52]
Sports journalism
Page issues
Sports journalism is a form of writing that reports on sporting topics and games. While the sports
department within some newspapers has been mockingly called the toy department, because sports
journalists do not concern themselves with the 'serious' topics covered by the news desk, sports
coverage has grown in importance as sport has grown in wealth, power and influence.
Sports journalism is an essential element of any news media organization. Sports journalism
includes organizations devoted entirely to sports reporting — newspapers such as L'Equipe in
France, La Gazzetta dello Sport in Italy, Marca in Spain, and the defunct Sporting Life in Britain,
American magazines such as Sports Illustrated and the Sporting News, all-sports talk radio
stations (other than John Kincade, of "Buck and Kincade" on 680TheFan), and television
networks such as Eurosport, Fox Sports 1, ESPN and The Sports Network (TSN) and Web Sports
News such as Cypriot Action in Sports.
Socio-political significance Edit
Major League Baseball gave print journalists a special role in its games. They were named official
scorers and kept statistics that were considered part of the official record of the league. Active
sportswriters were removed from this role in 1980. Although their statistical judgment calls could
not affect the outcome of a game in progress, the awarding of errors and wins/saves were seen as

powerful influences on pitching staff selections and play lists when coach decisions seemed
unusual. The removal of writers, who could benefit fiscally from sensational sports stories, was
done to remove this perception of a conflict of interest, and to increase statistics volume,
consistency, and accuracy.
Sports stories occasionally transcend the games themselves and take on socio-political
significance: Jackie Robinson breaking the color barrier in baseball is an example of this. Modern
controversies regarding the hyper-compensation of top athletes, the use of anabolic steroids and
other, banned performance-enhancing drugs, and the cost to local and national governments to
build sports venues and related infrastructure, especially for Olympic Games, also demonstrates
how sports can intrude on to the news pages.
Sportswriters regularly face more deadline pressure than other reporters because sporting events
tend to occur late in the day and closer to the deadlines many organizations must observe. Yet they
are expected to use the same tools as news journalists, and to uphold the same professional and
ethical standards. They must take care not to show bias for any team.
Many of the most talented and respected print journalists have been sportswriters.[citation needed]
(See List of sports writers.)
In EuropeEdit
The tradition of sports reporting attracting some of the finest writers in journalism can be traced to
the coverage of sport in Victorian England, where several modern sports – such as association
football, athletics and rugby – were first organized and codified into something resembling what
we would recognize today.
Andrew Warwick has suggested that The Boat Race provided the first mass spectator event for
journalistic coverage.[1] The Race was an annual rowing event in college athletics from 1856.
Cricket, possibly because of its esteemed place in society, has regularly attracted the most elegant
of writers. The Manchester Guardian, in the first half of the 20th century, employed Neville
Cardus as its cricket correspondent as well as its music critic. Cardus was later knighted for his
services to journalism. One of his successors, John Arlott, who became a worldwide favorite
because of his radio commentaries on the BBC, was also known for his poetry.
The first London Olympic Games in 1908 attracted such widespread public interest that many
newspapers assigned their very best-known writers to the event. The Daily Mail even had Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle at the White City Stadium to cover the finish of the Marathon.
Such was the drama of that race, in which Dorando Pietri collapsed within sight of the finishing
line when leading, that Conan Doyle led a public subscription campaign to see the gallant Italian,
having been denied the gold medal through his disqualification, awarded a special silver cup,
which was presented by Queen Alexandra. And the public imagination was so well caught by the

event that annual races in Boston, Massachusetts, and London, and at future Olympics, were
henceforward staged over exactly the same, 26-mile, 385-yard distance used for the 1908 Olympic
Marathon, and the official length of the event worldwide to this day.
The London race, called the Polytechnic Marathon and originally staged over the 1908 Olympic
route from outside the royal residence at Windsor Castle to White City, was first sponsored by the
Sporting Life, which in those Edwardian times was a daily newspaper which sought to cover all
sporting events, rather than just a betting paper for horse racing and greyhounds that it became in
the years after the Second World War.
The rise of the radio made sports journalism more focused on the live coverage of the sporting
events. The first sports reporter in Great Britain, and one of the first sports reporters in the World,
was an English writer Edgar Wallace, who made a report on the Epsom Derby on June 6, 1923 for
the British Broadcasting Company.
In France, L'Auto, the predecessor of L'Equipe, had already played an equally influential part in
the sporting fabric of society when it announced in 1903 that it would stage an annual bicycle race
around the country. The Tour de France was born, and sports journalism's role in its foundation is
still reflected today in the leading rider wearing a yellow jersey - the color of the paper on which
L'Auto was published (in Italy, the Giro d'Italia established a similar tradition, with the leading
rider wearing a jersey the same pink color as the sponsoring newspaper, La Gazzetta).
Sports stars in the press box Edit
After the Second World War, the sports sections of British national daily and Sunday newspapers
continued to expand, to the point where many papers now have separate standalone sports
sections; some Sunday tabloids even have sections, additional to the sports pages, devoted solely
to the previous day's football reports. In some respects, this has replaced the earlier practice of
many regional newspapers which - until overtaken by the pace of modern electronic media -
would produce special results editions rushed out on Saturday evenings.
Some newspapers, such as The Sunday Times, with 1924 Olympic 100 metres champion Harold
Abrahams, or the London Evening News using former England cricket captain Sir Leonard
Hutton, began to adopt the policy of hiring former sports stars to pen columns, which were often
ghost written. Some such ghosted columns, however, did little to further the reputation of sports
journalism, which is increasingly becoming the subject of academic scrutiny of its standards.
Many "ghosted" columns were often run by independent sports agencies, based in Fleet Street or
in the provinces, who had signed up the sports star to a contract and then syndicated their material
among various titles. These agencies included Pardons, or the Cricket Reporting Agency, which
routinely provided the editors of the Wisden cricket almanac, and Hayters.
Sportswriting in Britain has attracted some of the finest journalistic talents. The Daily Mirror's
Peter Wilson, Hugh McIlvanney, first at The Observer and lately at the Sunday Times, Ian

Wooldridge of the Daily Mail and soccer writer Brian Glanville, best known at the Sunday Times,
and columnist Patrick Collins, of the Mail on Sunday, five times the winner of the Sports Writer of
the Year Award.
Many became household names in the late 20th century through their trenchant reporting[citation
needed] of often earth-shattering events that have transcended the back pages and been reported
on the front pages: the Massacre at the Munich Olympics in 1972; Muhammad Ali's fight career,
including his 1974 title bout against George Foreman; the Heysel Stadium disaster; and the career
highs and lows of the likes of Tiger Woods, George Best, David Beckham, Lester Piggott and
other high profile stars.
McIlvanney and Wooldridge, who died in March 2007, aged 75, both enjoyed careers that saw
them frequently work in television. During his career, Wooldridge became so famous that, like the
sports stars he reported upon, he hired the services of IMG, the agency founded by the American
businessman, Mark McCormack, to manage his affairs. Glanville wrote several books, including
novels, as well as scripting the memorable official film to the 1966 World Cup staged in England.
Investigative journalism and sport Edit
Since the 1990s, the growing importance of sport, its impact as a global business and the huge
amounts of money involved in the staging of events such as the Olympic Games and football
World Cups, has also attracted the attention of investigative journalists. The sensitive nature of the
relationships between sports journalists and the subjects of their reporting, as well as declining
budgets experienced by most Fleet Street newspapers, has meant that such long-term projects have
often emanated from television documentary makers.
Tom Bower, with his 2003 sports book of the year Broken Dreams, which analyzed British
football, followed in the tradition established a decade earlier by Andrew Jennings and Vyv
Simson with their controversial investigation of corruption within the International Olympic
Committee. Jennings and Simson's The Lords of the Rings in many ways predicted the scandals
that were to emerge around the staging of the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City; Jennings
would follow-up with two further books on the Olympics and one on FIFA, the world football
body.
Likewise, award-winning writers Duncan Mackay, of The Guardian, and Steven Downes
unravelled many scandals involving doping, fixed races and bribery in international athletics in
their 1996 book, Running Scared, which offered an account of the threats by a senior track official
that led to the suicide of their sports journalist colleague, Cliff Temple.
But the writing of such exposes - referred to as "spitting in the soup" by Paul Kimmage, the
former Tour de France professional cyclist, now an award-winning writer for the Sunday Times –
often requires the view of an outsider who is not compromised by the need of day-to-day dealings
with sportsmen and officials, as required by "beat" correspondents.

The stakes can be high when upsetting sport's powers: in 2007, England's FA opted to switch its
multi-million-pound contract for UK coverage rights of the FA Cup and England international
matches from the BBC to rival broadcasters ITV. One of the reasons cited was that the BBC had
been too critical of the performances of the England football team.[citation needed]
Sports books Edit
Increasingly, sports journalists have turned to long-form writing,[citation needed] producing
popular books on a range of sporting topics, including biographies, history and investigations. Dan
Topolski was the first recipient of the William Hill Sports Book of the Year award in 1989, which
has continued to reward authors for their excellence in sports literature.
Organizations Edit
Most countries have their own national association of sports journalists.[citation needed] Many
sports also have their own clubs and associations for specified journalists. These organizations
attempt to maintain the standard of press provision at sports venues, to oversee fair accreditation
procedures and to celebrate high standards of sports journalism.
The International Sports Press Association, AIPS, was founded in 1924 during the Olympic
Games in Paris, at the headquarters of the Sporting Club de France, by Frantz Reichel, the press
chief of the Paris Games, and the Belgian Victor Boin. AIPS operates through a system of
continental sub-associations and national associations, and liaises closely with some of the world's
biggest sports federations, including the International Olympic Committee, football's world
governing body FIFA, and the IAAF, the international track and field body. The first statutes of
AIPS mentioned these objectives:
to enhance the cooperation between its member associations in defending sport and the
professional interest of their members.
to strengthen the friendship, solidarity and common interests between sports journalists of all
countries.
to assure the best possible working conditions for the members.
For horse racing the Horserace Writers and Photographers’ Association was founded in 1927, was
revived in 1967, and represents the interests of racing journalists in every branch of the media.
Press room at the Philips Stadion, home of PSV Eindhoven, prior to a press conference
In Britain, the Sports Journalists' Association was founded in 1948. It stages two awards events, an
annual Sports Awards ceremony which recognizes outstanding performances by British sportsmen
and women during the previous year, and the British Sports Journalism Awards, the industry's
"Oscars", sponsored by UK Sport and presented each March. Originally founded as the Sports
Writers' Association, following a merger with the Professional Sports Photographers' Association
in 2002, the organization changed its title to the more inclusive SJA. Its president is the veteran
broadcaster and columnist Sir Michael Parkinson. The SJA represents the British sports media on

the British Olympic Association's press advisory committee and acts as a consultant to organizers
of major events who need guidance on media requirements as well as seeking to represent its
members' interests in a range of activities. In March 2008, Martin Samuel, then the chief football
correspondent of The Times, was named British Sportswriter of the Year, the first time any
journalist had managed to win the award three years in succession. At the same awards, Jeff
Stelling, of Sky Sports, was named Sports Broadcaster of the Year for the third time, a prize
determined by a ballot of SJA members. Stelling won the vote again the following year, when the
Sunday Times's Paul Kimmage won the interviewer of the year prize for a fifth time.
In the United States, the Indianapolis-based National Sports Journalism Center monitors trends
and strategy within the sports media industry. The center is also home to the Associated Press
Sports Editors, the largest group of sports media professionals in the country.[citation needed]
In more recent years,[when?] sports journalism has turned its attention to online news and press
release media[2] and provided services to Associated Press and other major news syndication
services. This has become even more apparent with the increase in online social engagement. This
has led to an increasing number of freelance journalism in the sports industry and an explosion of
sports related news and industry websites.[citation needed]
Fanzines and blogs Edit
Through the 1970s and '80s, a rise in "citizen journalism" in Europe was witnessed in the rapid
growth in popularity of soccer "fanzines" - cheaply printed magazines written by fans for fans that
bypassed often stilted official club match programs and traditional media. Many continue today
and thrive.
Some authors have been adopted by their clubs - Jim Munro, once editor of the West Ham United
fanzine Fortune's Always Dreaming, was hired by the club to write for its matchday magazine and
is now sports editor of The Sun Online. Other titles, such as the irreverent monthly soccer
magazine When Saturday Comes, have effectively gone mainstream.
The advent of the internet has seen much of this fan-generated energy directed into sports blogs.
Ranging from team-centric blogs to those that cover the sports media itself, Bleacher Report,
Deadspin.com, ProFootballTalk.com, Tireball Sports, AOL Fanhouse, Masshole Sports, the blogs
in the Yardbarker Network, and others have garnered massive followings.
Blogging has also been taken up by sportspeople such as Curt Schilling, Paula Radcliffe, Greg
Oden, Donovan McNabb, and Chris Cooley.

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