Development communication

Development Communication
Development:
Positive and purposive change in all directions in a given society, i.e, social change in a society
intended to bring about both social and material advancement including greater quality, freedom
and other valued qualities for the majority of the people by gaining greater control over their
environment.
Communication:
A social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish & interpret meaning in their
environment.
Development Communication:
The strategic & intentional use of communication to advance socially beneficial goals.
Development communication is the process of intervening (intervene: to intentionally become
involved in a difficult situation in order to improve or prevent it from getting worse) in a systematic
or strategic manner with either media (print, radio, telephony, video, and the Internet), or education
(training, literacy, schooling) for the purpose of positive social change. The change could be
economic, personal, as in spiritual, social, cultural, or political.
Development Support Communication:
A planned and designed communication strategy which support a particular development
programme with the participation of organizations & individuals in a certain area.
Development Journalism:
The idea of development journalism states that to provide information about the development
activities and projects undertaken by the respective government of a developing country by the
media. Here journalism believed and expected to play a key role in facilitating and fostering
national development.
Five Key Components of DJ:
1- To report the difference between what has been planned to do & what in reality has been
achieved as well as the difference between its claimed & actual impact on people.
2- To focus not on day-to-day news but on long term development process.
3- To be independent from government & to provide constructive criticisms of government.
4- To shift journalistic focus to news of economic and social development while working
constructively with the government.
5- To empower the ordinary people to improve their own lives & communities.

Development Communication Development Support Communication
Macro-Level: DC represents a larger universe
& it applies generally to national development
at macro-level.
Micro-Level: DSC represents a limited
universe and it applies generally to a
community development at mircro-level.
DC campaigns are not directed towards a
specific development goal.
DSC is directed, goal oriented and concerned
with effects.
DC works in an open-ended form & is
persuasive.
DSC is bound and can be terminated after the
goal is achieved.
DC relies more on technologically oriented
communication media.
DSC campaigns are message-oriented. Its
communication contents are carefully
designed & produced.
DC remains limited to mass media. DSC utilizes a whole range of cultural based
means of communication.
DC functions clearly from top to down & is
hierarchical.
In all its properties, DSC is interactive &
participatory.
Because of its wide universe, DC includes a
wide range of variables, which are usually
difficult to control. Therefore research work is
not only difficult but also limited in DC.
Because of its limited universe, variables can
be isolated, measured & controlled easily.
Therefore, research work is easy to undertake
in DSC.
DC as an effective field of communication for
development has lost its credibility over the
years.
It has gained enormous credibility & has been
widely adopted by UN & various national
agencies of developing countries.
Change:
The concept of change is positive in character which leads & motivates human beings towards
bettter living conditions.
Change Agents:
Indivduals or organization facilitating the change through the process of development are called
change agents.
Variations among Communities:
Since human communities are the groups of people in a locality which are governed by a “complex
whole”. Therefore levels of change can be different due to variations among different
communities. These variations can be,

i. Size
ii. Population
iii. Composition
iv. Age
v. Socio-cultural characteristics
vi. Geographic settings
Levels of Change:
Thus change process may occur at various levels & in different forms. Such as,
i. Peoples physical structure
ii. Change in technology
iii. Social organization
iv. Normative values
v. Demographic characteristics
vi. Agriculture
vii. Health
viii. Education
In summarization levels of change could be
i. Urbanization
ii. Modernization
iii. Industrialization
These level of change are not identical. A community can be more modernized without
industrialization & a rural community can attain modern character without becoming an urban
community.
Sources of Change:
In the context of DSC, following sources are the common prerequisites for bringing change in a
human community:
i. LAND: Its distribution, socio-economic conditions, system of ownership & factors of
production. In the rural context, land is the major source which plays basic role of
bringing change intoa developing traditional community.
ii. Work Force: Its quantity, abilities & intentions to use & exploit the available natural
source of change the current conditions. People of a community are themselves the
most important source of change.
iii. Capital: Its availability, procurement & proper utilization is important. No change
strategy can accomplish its goals without financial support which obviously needs
capital.

iv. Education: Its level, quality & expansion. Education leads a communiy towards
awareness of what to do, what to accept & what to reject or modify. Change efforts can
hardly succeed without educating the target society/community.
v. Opinion Leaders: Such as social workers, religious elites, school teachers in the given
locality & artists etc; their involvement in change process & use of their abilities &
influence. In rural settings, particularly in less developing countries, opinion learders
link a community members & the change workers at various levels. Their personal local
influence, contacts & relationship can be used as an effective source of change.
vi. Communication Channels: Their proper selection, appropriate use and access
propensities. Selection & use of communication channels may vary from one
community to another. It depends on nature & importance of change. However,
communication channels are the major sources of supplementing change processes.
Their basic function is to provide awareness, to bring innovations and to influence the
existing attitudes in favour of intended change.
vii. Professionals: Their selection, abilities, training & acquantance with the problems.
They are associated with institutionalized arrangements for carrying on change actions.
They may be attached with different social community agencies, such as health &
family planning programmes. They may also be communication experts.
viii. Transportation: It is an important source of change in any community/society. Roads,
railways & other means of transportation not only facilitate easy access to & link with
rural areas, it also makes the job easy for change workers to reach the target areas also
change needs flow of goods, ideas, & essential mobility of human beings. Well-
organized, stable & rapid transport system is an important source of change.
ix. Government: Its structure, leadership, directions, planning & ability to execute the
change projects. Any change strategy can’t succeed without the involvement of policy
makers. This makes the government one of the most important sources of change
developing or under-developed communities. Able, honest devoted & selfless
leadership with clear directions only can bring about positive change.
The Role of Opinion Leaders:
i. Opinion leaders are more influential and effective than mass media due to interpersonal
communication for mobilizing the community.
ii. They spread ideas relating to development projects or the process of change.
iii. They expand the conversation by answering the feedback thus helping the smooth flow
of diffusion.
iv. They modify the process of diffusion through on time clearing the obstacles.
v. They link the community members & the change workers at various levels.
vi. They monitor the projects themselves thus data is gathered for future research and
implementation.

The Communication Channels:
The communication channels are all the available sources which enhance the process of
communication for facilitating change as communication establishes a climate in which change
can take place.
 Bazars
 Coffee House
 Puppet Show
 Local Gatherings
 Mass Media
 New Media
 Interpersonal Communication
Factors Influencing Change:
A great variety of factors can influence change process in a society depending on varying
conditions. However, following factors are considered very common & important to influence the
change process.
i. Growth of Communication Institutions: Growth of modern communication such as
mass media facilitate the oral channels of traditional societies. These channels are
closely related to change by influencing the audience.
ii. Interpersonal Local Media Channels: Social gatherings such as markets, coffee
house, tea house, clubs, cultural shows, puppet shows, and theaters play an important
role for propagating the messages in a certain locality.
iii. Socio-Psychological Dynamics: Socio-psychological dynamics influence the change
process in human behaviour. A great amount of experience & theory is available to
help in planning of credibility of communications & messages, selective behaviour
theory, Cognitive balance theory & cognitive dissonance, all over related to change
of attitude. Such knowledge is a time saving to be used in change strategies.
iv. Culture: Cultural components, both existing & new, of a society also influence any
change process. If change effort is going to suggest an innovation, it should better
explain it in terms that are acceptable to the culture where change is desired to be
brought.
v. Proper education, training, skilled workers, proper infrastructure & free
participatory flow of information is also influential for the process of change.
Obstales to Change:
i. Attitudes of Government: Directionless government cannot help in the change
process due to corruption & decisions to please only ruling elites. Since change is not
an isolated activity therefore if the system which makes institutions & agencies

responsible, gives directions, motivates members of the society & strive for national
well being can only bring about change.
ii. Partisan Communication: In most developing countries power elites use media as a
propaganda tool i.e., to promote themselves and their causes. This one sided
communication lose credibility of the mass media with in the society.
iii. Lack of Sustained Planning: In most of the developing countries the political system
is not stable therefore long term change projects are diffuclt to accomplish.
iv. Urban BasedPlanners: Ignorant of local problems urban planners are unable to solve
problems. They do their jobs to satisfy the persons sitting on the top. Ignorant opinion
leaders cannot solve people’s problems.
v. Cultural Factor: Change workers & change policy makers should have deep
understanging of cultural & educational problems of rural populations.
vi. Alien Western Models: Without proper consideration of developing countries’
problems, area study, cultural differences; Western models of change and development
could fail as they will be perceived as alien by local population which will be difficult
to fit under their social settings.
Reducing Resistance to Change:
Resistance factors to change process vary from one society to the other from one community
to the other. Resistance to change can be:
i. Awareness (Extended Education): The most important helping instrument to reduce
resistance to change is the widespread education, both on formal& informal levels.
Even in a limited community, people need to be educated for awareness & resolution
of their problems. In this direction, mass media, particularly radio & television can
serve the purpose more effectively & rapidly.
ii. Indepth Study of Peoples/Problems: Thorough study of the given population & their
problems is necessary. Withouth conducting scientific investigation about the socio-
cultural norms of a given community & the problems they are confronting a blind jump
for change may cause resistance to change strategies.
iii. Planned Participation of Media: Depending on the change strategy, planned
participation of national or local media is necessary activity to create & promote
awareness. For change, people have to be prepared for creating change conditions,
otherwise they would resist it at several levels.
iv. Reducing Imbalance between Society: Communication strategy for change should be
devised so that their remained not any imbalance between the different sections of
society. Socio-cultural & economic imbalances lead the human beings towards
frustrations & distrust. Frustrated people can hardly trust new ideas & things.
Communication therefore is used to create harmony among the community.
v. Selection of Change Volunteers: Volunteers for change actions should be picked up
from within the given communities & they should be provided training for the job. In
rural settings, alein efforts are usually resisted.

vi. Clear Incentive: The change process should be clear and well designed so that there
remains no confusions among the members of society.
vii. Quick Response to Feedbacks: A quick response to feedback may halt the
misunderstandings from escalating among community members.
Diffusion: Diffusion is “the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain
channels over time among the members of a social system”.
Innovation: An innovation is “an idea, pratice, or object perceived as new by an individual or
other unit of adoption”.
Theory: Theories help us understand or explain phenomena we observe in the social world.
They are the ‘nets with which we catch the world’ or the ways in which we make sense of
social life.
Diffusion of Innovations Theory: Diffusion of innovations theory states that an innovation
(i.e., an idea, new technology, and new technique) diffuses or spreads throughout society in a
predictable pattern. A few people will adopt an innovation as soon as they hear of it. Other
people will take longer to try something new, & still others will take much longer.
Rogers and other diffusion researchers have identified five separate innovation-adoption
categories into which all people in a society will fall. These are termed innovators, early
adopters, early majority, late majority, & the laggards.
The Adopter Categories: Rogers defined adopter categories as “the classification of
individuals within a social system on the basis of innovativeness”.
1- The Innovators: Innovators are described as venturesome & ready to try new things. Their
social relationships tend to be more cosmopolitan than those of other grouups. Such people
tend to form cliques & communicate with one another despite geographical distances.
2- The Early Adopters: Early adopters are more localite than cosmopolite. Due to their
integral part in the local society, their adopter category produces the most opinion leaders
of any other category. Early adopters are sought out for information about innovations, &
their advice is valued. Those in this adopter category have the respect of others in the
community because of their success & willingness to try innovations. The respect of others
in the community is important to the early adopter, & actions are geared toward preserving
that respect.
3- The Early Majority: This adopter category includes people who do not wish to be the first
to adopt new technologies or new ideas. Instead, the early majority prefers to deliberate,
often for some period of time, before its members make a decision to adopt. These people
serve the important function of legitimizing an innovation, or showing the rest of the
community that the innovation is useful & adoption is desirable.
4- The Late Majority: Members of the late majority are skeptical & cautious about about the
benefits of adoption. They wait until most of the community has already tried & adopted
the innovationn before they act. Sometimes peer pressure or social pressure serve to

motivate the late majority. In other cases, economic necessity induces them to adopt the
innovation.
5- The Laggards: Members of this group are the last to adopt. The laggards are tied to the
past, to the traditional way of doing things, & are very reluctant to try anything new. Many
of these people interact with the same mind-set. Once laggard adopts an innovation, the
rest of the socity may have moved so far forward that the “innovation” has become
outdated.
Planning Development Communication Campaign
Cognitive: It is used to describe mental process or thoughts.
Emotion: Mental states that typically include feelings, psychological changes, & the inclinnation
to act.
Behaviour: To behave is to act in a particular way that is action taken for doing something which
someone wanted. Therefore someone’s behaviour is how he bahaves.
Attitude: A persons’s attitude can be defined as that person’s “abstract evaluation of an object”.
Or
People’s general predispositions to evaluate other peoples, objects, & issues favourably or
unfavourably.
Attitudes have a critical role in the process of persuasion. Attitude is also viewed as the all
important mediator that stands between the acquisition of new persuasive information &
subsequent behavioral change. If the new information changes a person’s attitude, then
behavioural change is more likely.
Dissonance: Something being inconsistent.
Cognitive Dissonance: What actually causes a change in attitude? What internal process come
into play? Are people motivated to change their attitudes & behaviour to gain rewards or avoid
punishment, or do they make the change due to some other reason?
An explanation of this complex process is the theory of cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance occurs when attitude & action become inconsistent with one another. Or
information that is inconsistent with a person’s already-held attitudes creates psychological
discomfort or dissonance.
Cognitive Consistency: The idea that people consciously & unconsciously work to preserve their
existing views.
Persuasion: The intentional influence of opinions, beliefs, values or attitudes by an external
agency.
Techniques of Persuasion:

 Appeals to Humor
 Appeals to Sex
 Effects of Repetition
Propaganda: The process & product of deliberate attempts to influence collective behaviour &
opinion by the use of multiple means of communication in ways that are systematic & one-sided.
Propaganda is carried out in the interest of the source or sender, not the recipient. It is almost
certain to be in some respects misleading or not fully truthful & can be entirely untrue, as with
certain kinds of disinformation.
Public Relations: Public relations is the art & social science of analyzing trends, prediting their
consequences, counseling organization leaders, & implementing planned programs of action that
serve both the organization’s & the public’s interest.
 PR involves working with public opinion.
 PR is concerned with communication.
 PR is a management function.
 It attempts at persuasion.
 It uses mass media & interpersoanl communication.
 PR is two-way communication.
Press Agentry: It involves staging events or planning enterprises that attract media or public
attention to a person, product, organization, or cause.
 Press agents are useful in some PR campaigns, public relations encompases a much broader
area & involves more that just attracting attention.
Publicity: The placing of stories in the mass media.
 Publicity is a tool in the public relations process, but it is not equivlent to PR. For example,
it is perfectly possible for a firm to have extensive publicity & bad public relations.
 Publicity is one-way communication.
Public/Communication Campaign: Purposive or planned attempts to inform, persuade, or
motivate behaviour changes in a relatively well-defined & large audience generally for
noncommercial benefits to the individuals &/or society at large typically within a given time period
by means or organized communication activities involving mass media & often complemented by
interpersonal support.
The main types of campaign are: advertising, political, public informational, fund raising. Public
campaigns are usually directed towards socially approved goals. They are often based on research
& subject to evaluation of success.
Advertising: It is any form of nonpersonal presentation & promotion of ideas, goods, & services
usually paid for by an identified sponsor.
 Paid publicity in media for goods or services directed at consumers.

 It has various aims including the creation of awareness, making brand images, forming
positive associations & encouraging consumer behaviour.
 All advertising content shares the fact of being paid for by its source.
 It has a propagandist character & is suspected of deception & manipulation.
 It has a distorting effect on the relation between media & audience.
 Its content is stereotyped & misleading.
 It is one-way communication.
Not included in course outline extra not taught just added in notes for student’s
future use in specialization
Concept of Communication Campaign: These are some key related concepts that are central to
the unnderstanding of communication campaigns.
1. The Objectives of the Campaign or the Media Methods Employed: Two defining
characteristics of communication campaigns are
i. Objectives: Refer to the essence of communication appeals, i.e., one group’s
attempts to influence the attitudes or behaviour of another
ii. Methods: It defines the genre (a style) of communication (e.g, as educational or
innovative & nonconventional types), the type of communication media, & the
strategies that the campaign employs.
2. The Strategy Used to Facilitate Change: The three basic strategies of social control
“three E’s” i.e., Education, Engineering, & Enforcement, that have been identified as
causing changes in levels of knowledge, attitude, or behaviours are also important in
understanding campaigns.
Their effectiveness depends on several factors i.e, audience’s cultural heritage, form of
government, & level of technological development.
In a country with authoritarian leadership, enforcement is usually chosen as the appropriate
strategy for communication campaign. The most effective strategy for a society of people
with common values is usually education. Engineering used to fight poverty illiteracy,
inequality, & so on through social engineers’ drafted programs.
Engineering of consent: Official use of communication campaigns to reach “good” ends.
3. The Potential Benefits Resulting from Proposed Change: It refers to the benefits that
individuals or society will gain by complyingwith the objectives of the campaign.
Campaigns may also highlight the negative aspects of particular behaviours in an attempt
to motivate audiences to change.
4. Public Perceptions about the Campaign Stakeholder: There are different types of
stakeholders such as:
i. Individuals & Associations
ii. Media
iii. Government
iv. Social Scientists
5. The Stakeholders Themselves: Another conccept important to the success of campaigns
has to do with the public’s view of the stakeholder. The source of the campaign messages

must be seen as an individual or group who is entitled to or has the right to offer the
messages, place them on the public’s issue agenda, and attempt to change the behaviours
of audiences. This concept of stakeholders & the personal relevance of an issue to them is
known as entitlement.
Two class of Public Issues:
a. Obligations: For some issues people feel obligated to respond due to some sense of
altruism or unselfishness.
b. Opportunities: For some issues people are self-interested & focus on self-
improvement opportunities.
These two issues are also the two key motivational components in communication
campaigns, which call for action motivated by altruistic leanings, by personal benefits,
or both. For example, campaigns that promote a healthier environment may appeal to
a person’s unselfish desire to keep the earth a safe & beautiful place for future
generations. A campaign to prevent illegal drug use might appeal to another person’s
self-interested desire to keep his teenager off drugs.
Two Classes of Stakeholders
a. First-Party Entitlement: Refers to a situation in which an aggrieved group of
stakeholders is seen by the public to be directly affected by an issue, e.g,
b. Second-Party Entitlement: Refers to circumstances in which a group is not
directly impacted by a particular issue, e.g,
Advantages of the Campaign Approach: Several features make the campaign
approach valuable in DSC. Some of them are:
i. A campaign approach is the only way to handle large & complex programmes
of public information & education. Haphazard communications cannot be
effecctive when working with large & diverse audience, through variety of
messages, & by using various communication methods.
ii. The campaign approach permits the use of resources (time, funds, and
personnel) more effectively & helps you to coordinate them.
iii. The campaign approach is unique in the way it permits the use of combinations
of methods, directed towards the same programme objectives. It can add unity
to the educational efforts.
iv. This approach produces a planned schedule of coordinated activities, so it helps
to adjust the efforts of personnel over period of time.
v. It can help to reach more members of the intended audience, by using a
combination of communication methods.
vi. It can provide a wider change of understanding as it helps to reach audience
members through multiple channels & in a repetitive pattern which enlarge the
scope of learning.
Creating the Plan: Researchers have identified 10 underlying principles that, if
adhered to by those who implement campaigns, may increase a campaign’s chances for
success. These principles are:

i. Understand Historical & Conceptual Dimensions: The conceptual
components such as objectives, methods, strategies of change, individual or
collective benefits, first-party & second-party entitlement, & Th stakeholders
whereas historical dimensions are study of past successful campaigns are
improtant.
ii. Apply & Extend Relevant Theroy: Theoretical principles help campaign
developers understand the underlying dynamics of persuasion &
communication, & therefore design the most effective campaigns possible.
 McGuire’s communication/persuasion model
 Elaboration likelihood model
 Social lerning theory
 Extended Parallel Process Model
 Diffusion Model, emphasizes the spread of ideas or practices via
interpersoanal networks.
 Transtheoretical Model, identifies five stages in the process of
behaviour change on the part of audiences: precontemplation,
contemplation, preparation, action, & maintenance.
The message should be tailored to audiences at particular stages in the
behavioural change process.
iii. Understand Theoretical Implications & Interactions:
a. Campaign goals should not be set too high
b. Careful decisions should be made regarding the measure for the campaign’s
success
c. The power of particular components may undermine the campaign’s overall
message
d. Different components (sometimes negative) may effect eath other in a
postitive way
iv. Plan the Campaign: Match Objectives to Individual Cost-Benefits: Several
factors must be carefully designed in campaign formation
a. Realistic goals must be set (e.g., attitude or behavior changes that will be
measured either in the short terrm or long term)
b. Carefullly defined media objectives
c. Timing of the campaign’s media messages is also essential
d. Choice of Media because different media offer different advantages
v. Apply Formative Evaluation: Campaigns must be monitored for a variety of
reasons, the most important being the meausre of their effectiveness over time.
Evaluations are essential to planning, making, & implementing miprovements,
administering & scheduling various components, & other aspcts of the
campaign. Preproduction research consists of four stages
a. Identify audience related factors such as which target group is most at rist,
which people are most likely to receive the messages, which one are most
likely to be persuaded & which ones are the least likely.

b. Specify behaviour-related factors such as targeted behaviours & skills that
must be taught in order to maintain behavioral changes.
c. Identify the intermediate steps that occur after exposure to a campaignn
message & before behavioural changes takes place (these may include
changes in attitudes, values, knowledge, skills etc. that must take place).
d. Identify media use factors such as which communications media is used
most by the target audience during what hours.
Pretesting allows campaign designers to revise their messages accordingly.
vi. Analyze & Understand the Audience: One important way to understand
audiences is in identifying subaudiences & recognizing the three major types of
audiences
 Focal segments: audiences grouped by levels of risk or illlness,
readiness, income & education, & other factors such as sensation
seeking.
 Interpersonal influencers: are opinion leaders, media advocates, & peer
& role models who can mediate the campaign (positively or negatively)
& help set the public agenda.
 Societal policy makers: those who affect the legal, political, & resource
infrastructure, through, e.g. regulations on media messages,
environmental conditions, or safety standards, & social action such as
community-based campaigns, insurance & health care programs.
vii. Analyze & Understand Media Choices: In a communication campaign,
media choices refer not only to various communications media such as
television, radio, newspapers, & so forth, but also to different strategies of
media use. For example use of public relations skills & public affairs activities
may help the public visibility of the campaign & possibly shape the course
legislative actions related to the campaign issues. Press releases may result in
media coverage of a campaign-related event or issue. The use of public service
announcements (PSAs), by analyzing the ratings of the channels which allowd
them to calculate the number of people in the audience at a particular time
(called the reach) & the number of exposures a person may receive (the
frequency).
viii. Mix Multiple Media & Interpersonal Channels when Cost-Effective:
Research has shown that people are more likely to make attitudinal or
behavioral changes (even long-terrm ones) when the media campaiign is
supplemented by interpersonal supporters. For example, the use of training
instructors to help those who are trying to quit smoking, or those at risk for heart
disease are examples of interpersonal campaign supports, as are personal
appearances by political candidates during their election campaigns. This
principle stresses that interpersonal communications should be used as support
for the overall media campaign. On their own, interpersonal activities may have
strong persuasive effects, but mass media campaign messages continue to be
more effective in terms of the number of people reached & the costs involved.

ix. Understand Uses & Contradictions of Mass Media: Planners must also be
aware of the broad spectrum of mass media content, some of which may be in
direct contradiction of the campaign messages. Commercial television
programs, & motion pictures often depict individuals engaging in unhealthy
activities such as smoking, drug use, sexual activities and many other
circumstances which deliver the message of their own that might contradict
with the message of the campaign.
x. Identify Reasonable Criteria for Campaign Success, & Use Summative
Evaluation to Assess both Theory & Program Success: It would not be
reasonable to expect a communication campaign to prevent any circumstances
from ever occuring again, or to stop all the people from a certain activity. Rather
campaign motive is to cause awareness and significant reduction or adoption of
concerned message. This maximum reduction or adoption should be considered
as success.
Summative evaluation refers to the identification & measurement of several
aspectts of the campaign, including the audience, the implementation of the
campaign components, the effects of the campaign on individuals & society,
the cost effectiveness of the project, & identification of thee steps in the causal
process that explain why effects did or did not occur.
Three types of evaluation models which may be used to assess the campaign’s
success are:
a. The advertising model: focuses on the early stages of the communication
heirarchy of effects: exposure, recall, liking, self-reporting bahavioural
intentions, & message characteristics.
b. The impact monitoring model: focuses on the more distal stages & social
impacts in the hierarchy of effects, through traking of archival data such as
population trends, consumption behaviours, epidemiological information,
and so on.
c. The Experimental model: focuses on testing hypothesized causal chains
throuugh controlled manipulation of treatments, often requiring lengthy &
complex campaigns.
Systems-theoretical approach: this is another method of campaign
evaluation. It is effective in evaluating communication campaign related to
health in less developed countries. Including seven stages:
1. Specifying the goals & underlying assumptions of the project.
2. Specifying the process model at the project level
3. Specifying prior stages, system phases, & system constraints
4. Specifying immediate as well as long-term intended poststats
5. Specifying the procss model at the individual level
6. Choosing among research approaches appropriate to the system
7. Assessing implications for design

Stages of Campaign Design in DSC:
Stage-I Identification of Objectives
A useful statement of objectives must do three things.
1. Specify the kind of change desired or introduce the new idea
2. Pin point the intended audience
3. State the period of time involved
Stage-II Analysis
 Topic Analysis
1. How familiar is the topic to the intended audience?
2. How easy is it to see & describe?
3. How readily can it be demonstrated?
4. Howw strong or weak is the scientific base for it?
5. To what extent does it agree or conflict with the current values &
experiences of the audience?
Careful analysis of topic, situation, intended audience & the local organization that intends DSC,
can help keep a campaign simple & on target.
 Situation Analysis
1. How severe is the problem, or great the opportunity?
2. What has created the problem or opportunity?
3. What efforts were made to introduce the idea or to achieve the desired
results?
4. What were the net results prodced by those effots?
 Audience Analysis
1. How many audience would be targeted?
2. What are the location & inhabitancy of the audience?
3. What are their major characteristics (sex, education, age, financial resource,
occupation etc)
4. How much do they know about the topic?
5. How much interested they are in the topic?
6. What are their feelings & opinions about the topic?
7. What are their goals related to the topic?
8. To what sources do, or would, they normally go for information about the
topic?
9. What group or organizations are important to them?
10. What mass media they use?
 Sponsor Analysis
1. What is the importance of the topic for DSC?
2. How urgent is the matter from DSC point of view

3. How much priority will the matter receive within DSC?
4. What resources are available to work on the programme?
Answers to these analysis would help to make decision aout whether to conduct the campaign, to
whom it should be directed, what should be said, what communication channels should be used,
when the campaign should begin & end etc. Such analysis would be extremely valuable to the
communication planners in DSC.
Stage-III Formulation of the Plan
 Methods to use
1. Identify channels to be used
2. Identify messages to be conveyed
3. Format of the message material
4. Ways to arrange feedback
 Timing the campaign
1. Deciding when to begin
2. Guided patterns regarding the decisions & actions taken by audience
 Using slogans & symbols
1. Used to add impact of a DSC campaign
2. Attract attention to the topic & messages so should be effective enough
3. Help audiences learn & remember informatio easily
4. Build up unity among audience & organizatio
5. Emphasis should be on single idea tied to campaign objective
6. Interesting & memorable
 Pre-testing messages
Evaluate by testing the effectiveness of message symbols, slogans
 Selecting media & methods
1. Use more than one communication channel in DSC
2. Help to overcome people’s tendency to use certain information channels
3. More impact when come from a variety of media
4. Greater chances of access to a majority of the audience members
 Providing channels for information-seeking
1. Providing channels for further information seeking to the interested audience
2. Arranging methods to collect feedback and answering
 Involving people
1. List all the different people & organization that should be informed & involved in
the campaign
2. Involving concerned people at all stages
 Deciding how much is enough
Every member of the intended audience should at least be exposed twice to the message

 Pacing the campaign
1. The timing of the campaign should be matched with the season concerning the topic
2. Messages should be scheduled intensively to achieve maximum impact
3. Consider the pacing of the campaign in terms of peaks, lows & averages
 Using calendars & work charts
1. Campaign calendar showing when each communication method will be used during
campaign period
2. Work chart of each activity required before, during & after on week to week or day
to day basis mentioning responsible persons, sort of activity & also deadlines
 Evaluating the campaign
1. Evaluating the campaign in terms of objectives achieved
2. It deal with cheking resources, deadlines met, state of cooperation with partner
organizations, amount & kinds of feedback
3. Results of desired changes achieved

Development communication

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