The liver is the largest organ in the body
It is located below the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and extended approximately from the right 5th rib to the lower border of the rib cage.
ALT is an enzyme present in liver, heart skeletal muscles, highest concentration is present in Liver. it value increases when there is abnormality in liver, ALT is an amino transferase which transfer one amino group from an amino acid and transfer to another substance for production of non essential amino acid
Glucose tolerance test- Indications, contraindications, preparation of a patient, precautions, types of GTT, normal curve, diabetic curve, renal glycosuria, lag curve, Criteria for diagnosis of DM
Lipids are fatty substances that play an important role in a number of body functions. Apart from being structural components of the cells, Lipids also act as a source and mode of storage of energy for the body. The Lipid Profile Test measures the levels of specific types of lipids in the blood.
For more details, visit:
https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/lipid-profile-1909
Renal function tests are very useful for effective clinical evaluation of renal failure for effective management. So it is useful for medical and allied professional students and clinical practitioners.
KFT are used for evaluating kidney functions. there are several routine tests such as urea, creatinine and uric acid. Calculation of eGFR is recommended by national kidney organization whenever creatinine serum is measured.
ALT is an enzyme present in liver, heart skeletal muscles, highest concentration is present in Liver. it value increases when there is abnormality in liver, ALT is an amino transferase which transfer one amino group from an amino acid and transfer to another substance for production of non essential amino acid
Glucose tolerance test- Indications, contraindications, preparation of a patient, precautions, types of GTT, normal curve, diabetic curve, renal glycosuria, lag curve, Criteria for diagnosis of DM
Lipids are fatty substances that play an important role in a number of body functions. Apart from being structural components of the cells, Lipids also act as a source and mode of storage of energy for the body. The Lipid Profile Test measures the levels of specific types of lipids in the blood.
For more details, visit:
https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/lipid-profile-1909
Renal function tests are very useful for effective clinical evaluation of renal failure for effective management. So it is useful for medical and allied professional students and clinical practitioners.
KFT are used for evaluating kidney functions. there are several routine tests such as urea, creatinine and uric acid. Calculation of eGFR is recommended by national kidney organization whenever creatinine serum is measured.
the following document contains various diagnostic test for screening liver function. and interpretation of results, which may confirm the presence of a disease or disorder
Liver function tests for Pharm.D (Medicinal biochemistry & Clinical pharmacy)Soujanya Pharm.D
Introduction, Major functions of liver, Tests to assess liver function, Classification of liver function tests, Interpretation of results (Medicinal biochemistry & Clinical pharmacy)
The liver function tests typically include alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), serum bilirubin, prothrombin time (PT), the international normalized ratio (INR), total protein and albumin.
1.Detect presence of liver disease.
2.Distinguish among different types of liver diseases.
3.Estimate the extent of known liver damage.
4.Follow the response of treatment
Essential Textbook of Biochemistry For Nursing (B.Sc.Nursing & PBN)Tapeshwar Yadav
I have relished teaching Biochemistry during my more than Ten years teaching experience in a medical, dental, nursing and health science colleges. It was because of constant inspiration from my students that I could come up with Essentials Textbook of Biochemistry for Nursing book, which hopefully would meet the inadequacies the students face in other books. In this age when the concepts in this subject are constantly changing, this book attempts to summarise the fundamentals and current state of knowledge in Biochemistry.
Biochemistry has been primarily written for the students of B.Sc. Nursing & Post Basic of Nursing (PBN) in such a way that it will also be suitable for General Medicine, Radiography, Physiotherapy, Ayurveda, Optometry, Dental and Nursing. This book can also be used as Reference for B.Sc. MLT, Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. PHARMA), Bachelor of Public Health (BPH), Bachelor of Physiotherapy (BPT), B. Ophthalmology, Bachelor of Radiography (BRT) and Biomedical Engineering students of Tribhuvan University, Purbanchal University, Kathmandu University and Pokhara University. Similarly, it will be equally useful for all the teachers, academic writers and those who are involved directly or indirectly in teaching and practising Health Sciences.
This is a basic book on Essential Textbook of Biochemistry for Nursing. The book thoroughly discusses some of the major concepts of Biochemistry and provides adequate information to help the students understand its implications in various areas of the subject. Furthermore, the book aims at equipping the students with practical cum theoretical skills. The book covers almost all the topics which have been prescribed in the Syllabus.
This is an introductory course to Biochemistry and is about medical biochemistry including the biochemical processes of - digestion & absorption of foods, metabolism of different kinds of foods & their disturbance effects in our body together with the physiological roles of different kinds of vitamins & enzymes.
The book consists of Theory as well as Practical portion. The author has tried his best to make all the concepts of each unit as lucid and simple as required for the students with supportive examples, samples, diagrams, clinical disorders and practical works. The ultimate purpose of this book is to equip the reader with comprehensive knowledge in Biochemistry with reference to basic as well as clinical aspects.
At last, I have made every effort to make the book error free, I am under no illusion. I expect constructive comments and suggestions from learners and teachers who use this book which will obviously help me in improving the future edition of the book.
Amino acids are a group of organic compounds containing two functional groups amino and carboxyl. The amino group (-NH2) is basic while the carboxyl group (-COOH) is acidic in nature.
The plasma in the liquid medium of blood (55%) in which the cell components namely Erythrocytes, Leucocytes and Platelets are suspended.
If anticoagulated blood is centrifuged, the plasma separates out as a supernatant while the cells remain at the bottom.
Plasma consists of water electrolytes metabolites nutrients proteins and hormones.
Most of the plasma proteins are synthesized in the liver.
Plasma proteins are separated by electrophoresis.
The word protein is derived from the Greek word ‘Proteios’ which means holding the first place. Berzelius (Swedish chemist) suggested the name proteins to the group of organic compounds that are important to life.
Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the living system.
They occur in every part of the cell and constitute about 50% of the cellular dry weight.
Proteins form the fundamental basis of structure and function of life.
Out of the total dry body weight, 3/4th are made up of proteins.
Proteins are used for body building; all the major structural and functional aspects of the body are carried out by protein molecules.
Proteins are high molecular weight polypeptides containing α-amino acids joined together by peptide linkage (-CO-NH).
The endocrine system consists of a network of ductless glands that secrete chemicals (called hormones) that affect the function of specific organs within the body, thus regulating many of the intricate functions of the body itself.
These ductless glands secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream, as opposed to releasing them externally through ducts (as do the sweat glands and the oil glands).
The field of medicine that deals with the study of the endocrine system and the treatment of the diseases and disorders of the endocrine system is known as endocrinology.
The physician who specializes in the medical practice of endocrinology
is known as an endocrinologist.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
This field combines biology as well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism
Biochemistry is a basic science which deals with chemical nature and chemical behaviour of living matter and with the reactions and processes they undergo.
“The branch of science dealing with the study of all the life processes such as control and coordination within a living organism is called Biochemistry”
Medical parasitology : study of parasites that infect human, diseases caused by them, clinical picture, their diagnosis, treatment and prevention as well as controls.
It involves drug development, epidemiological studies and study of zoonoses.
To know various terms related to parasitology.
To know about general parasites and parasitic infections.
To get knowledge about laboratory diagnosis and its importance.
To gain idea about general epidemiological aspects of parasites that affect human.
Apply basic methods of specimen collection , preservation and processing in lab.
To prevent ourselves from these infections and apply control measures.
Microbiology is the study of
living organisms of microscopic
size which includes bacteria ,
Fungi , Algae , Protozoa and Viruses. It is concerned with the forms, structure , reproduction , physiology , metabolism and classification.
Principle Of Microbiology
Medical microbiology deals with the causative agent of the infectious disease of the human , the ways in which they produce disease in the body and essential information for diagnosis and treatment.
Hematology is the branch of medicine, that is concerned with the study of blood, blood forming organs and blood diseases. It includes study of etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and prevention of blood diseases .
After the completion of this presentation we will know about:
What is hematology and its purpose.
hematology laboratory.
Blood and its compositions and collections
Hematology lab equipment's
Some hematological tests , disease and hazards too.
Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things. This includes organic molecules and their chemical reactions.
Biochemistry deals with body substance like enzymes, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, proteins, hormones, DNA, RNA, pigments etc.
The major objective of biochemistry is the complete understanding of all chemical processes associated with living cells at the molecular level. Some of the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism.
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells.
5. The relationship of biochemistry with the genetics, physiology, immunology, pharmacology, toxicology etc.
Biochemistry is related to almost all the life sciences and without biochemistry background and knowledge, a through understanding of health and well-being is not possible.
It is a well known fact that metal ions have a profound effect on cellular processes
The importance or the role that ions play in cellular activity can be gauged by the fact that most cells maintain a very critical Na+ & k+ balance between the extracellular and the intracellular spaces.
Any distribution in this critical balance is to the cellular metabolism through a drastic change in the osmotic pressure resulting in cellular swelling.
An ISE operates an exactly the same principles as a PH electrode
In fact, a PH electrode is a type of ion selective electrode sensitive to hydrogen ion.
Just like a PH electrode, the electrode body contains a reference solution and an metal reference electrode
Safety cabinets are intended to protect a laboratory worker from aerosols and airborne particles.
They will not protect the person from spillages and the consequences of mishandling and poor technique.
Aerosol particles of less than 5 µm in diameter and small droplets of 5–100 µm in diameter are not visible to the naked eye.
The laboratory worker is generally not aware that such particles are being generated and may be inhaled or may cross contaminate work surface materials.
BSCs, when properly used, have been shown to be highly effective in reducing laboratory-acquired infections and cross-contaminations of cultures due to aerosol exposures. BSCs also protect the environment.
Most BSCs use high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters in the exhaust and supply systems.
The exception is a Class I BSC, which does not have HEPA filtered supply air.
The application of knowledge, techniques and equipment to prevent a personal laboratory and environmental exposure to potentially infectious agents or biohazard is known as biosafety.
Biosafety defines the containment conditions under which infectious agents can be safely manipulated.
The objective of containment is to confine biohazard and to reduce the potential exposure of the laboratory worker, persons outside of the laboratory, and the environment to potentially infectious agents.
A pipette (also called a point or a pipettor) is a laboratory instrument used to transfer a measured volume of liquid.
Pipettes are commonly used in chemistry and molecular biology research as well as clinical biochemistry tests.
Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with different levels of accuracy and precision, from single piece flexible plastic transfer pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes.
A pipette works by creating a vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw and dispense liquid.
Safe Use and Storage of Chemicals and ReagentsTapeshwar Yadav
Even in the smallest laboratory, dangerous chemicals are used directly or incorporated into stains and reagents.
Hence the correct handling and storage of hazardous chemicals is essential to prevent injury and damage.
In addition to this, to reduce accidents caused by chemicals, labeling is very important.
Laboratory Hazards, Accidents and Safety RulesTapeshwar Yadav
Injury, damage and loss by fire can be minimized when laboratory staff:
Understand how fires are caused and spread;
Reduce the risk of fire by following fire safety regulations at all times;
Know what to do if there is a fire in their laboratory;
Know how to use fire fighting equipment;
Know how to apply emergency First Aid, for burns.
Revised Curriculum of Certificate in Medical Laboratory Technology(CMLT) by C...Tapeshwar Yadav
This curriculum of 3 years Certificate in Medical Laboratory Technology is designed to produce middle level skilled laboratory personnel equipped with knowledge, skills and attitudes of medical laboratory with a view to provide diagnostic, curative, preventive and promotive laboratory services to the community. Such technicians collect specimens, process, and perform tests to analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances. The graduates perform lab procedures and maintain instruments. The graduates are expected to perform tests that help other healthcare professionals such as physicians to detect, diagnose, and treat diseases.
The program extends over three academic years. The first year course focuses on basic science and foundational subjects, the second year course focuses on theory and practical parts of basic medical laboratory subjects. Simultaneously the third year is given to the application of learned skills and knowledge in the comprehensive practical settings, in hospitals and medical laboratory. The graduates will have career opportunities in hospitals, diagnostic laboratories, clinics, industry and physicians' offices, research centers, blood bank, crime investigating laboratories etc. It is based on the code of conduct of Nepal Health professional Council.
Clinical Pathology is the application of laboratory techniques to find out the cause of disease. Clinical pathology laboratory involves all aspect of the medicine ranging from the field of biochemistry, microbiology, Parasitology, haematology, immunology and cytogenetics etc. Clinical pathology laboratory perform qualitative and quantitative analysis of body fluid such as urine, blood, CSF, sputum, other body fluid such as synovial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid and plural fluid. These determinations are useful in diagnosing various clinical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, jaundice, gout, hyperlipidemia, pancreatitis, rickets, etc. The clinical pathological tests are very useful in determining the severity of diseases of many organs such as liver, stomach, heart, kidneys, brain as well as the endocrine disorders and related status of acid-base balance of the body. The clinical pathology tests, in relation to the various clinical conditions can be applicable for:-
1) Reveal the causes of the diseases
2) Screen easy diagnosis
3) Suggest effective treatment
4) Assist in monitoring progress of a pathological condition and
5) Help in assessing response to therapy
Modern medicine says that: Your practice of medicine will be as good as your understanding of pathology.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. Review: LiverReview: Liver
The liver is the largest organ in
the body
It is located below the diaphragm
in the right upper quadrant of the
abdominal cavity and extended
approximately from the right 5th
rib to the lower border of the rib
cage.
3. The liver is separated into a
right and left lobe, separated
by the falciform ligament. The
right is much larger than the
left .
4. The liver performs an astonishingly large
number of tasks that impact all body systems.
Liver have two channels
that can supply and oxygen
nutriment : hepatic artery
and hepatic portal vein .
The corresponding
channels is hepatic vein
and bile ducts.
5. The working cells of the liver are known as
hepatocytes, which have a unique capacity to
reproduce in response to liver injury.
Liver regeneration can occur after surgical
removal of a portion of the liver or after injuries that
destroy parts of the liver.
Although the liver's ability to react to damage and
repair itself is remarkable, repetitive insults can
produce liver failure and death.
6. Functions of liverFunctions of liver
a. Excretory function: bile pigments, bile salts and
cholesterol are excreted in bile into intestine.
b. Metabolic function: liver actively participates in
carbohydrate, lipid, protein, mineral and vitamin
metabolisms.
c. Hematological function: liver is also produces
clotting factors like factor V, VII. Fibrinogen
involved in blood coagulation is also synthesized
in liver. It synthesize plasma proteins and
destruction of erythrocytes.
7. ④ Storage functions: glycogen, vitamins A, D and
B12,and trace element iron are stored in liver.
⑤ Protective functions and detoxification:
Ammonia is detoxified to urea. kupffer cells of
liver perform phagocytosis to eliminate foreign
compounds. Liver is responsible for the
metabolism of xenobiotic.
9. What is Purpose of LFTs?What is Purpose of LFTs?
LFTs alone do not give the physician full information, but
used in combination with a careful history, physical
examination (particularly ultrasound and CT Scanning), can
contribute to making an accurate diagnosis of the specific
liver disorder.
Different tests will show abnormalities in response to
liver inflammation
liver injury due to drugs, alcohol, toxins, viruses
Liver malfunction due to blockage of the flow of bile
Liver cancers
10. LFTs are divided into
true tests of liver function,
such as serum albumin, bilirubin, and
protime,
tests that are indicators of liver injury or
biliary tract disease.
11. Classification of liver functions testClassification of liver functions test
Classified based on the major functions of liver:
a. Excretion: Measurement of bile pigments, bile salts.
b. Serum enzymes: Transaminase (ALT, AST), alkaline
phosphate(ALP), 5’-nucleotidase, LDH isoenzyme.
c. Synthetic function: Prothrombin time, serum albumin.
d. Metabolic capacity: Galactose tolerance and antipyrine
clearance
e. Detoxification :
12. 1. Excretion1. Excretion : Bilirubin: Bilirubin
Bilirubin is the main bile pigment that is formed
from the breakdown of heme in red blood cells. The
broken down heme travels to the liver, where it is
secreted into the bile by the liver.
13. via bile duct to intestines
Stercobilin
excreted in feces
Urobilinogen
formed by bacteria KIDNEY
Urobilin
excreted in urine
BLOOD
CELLS
CO
Biliverdin IXα
Heme oxygenase
O2
Bilirubin
(water-insoluble)
NADP+
NADPH
Biliverdin
reductase
Heme
Globin
Hemoglobin
reabsorbed
into blood
LIVER
Bilirubin diglucuronide
(water-soluble)
2 UDP-glucuronic acid
Bilirubin
(water-insoluble)
via blood
to the liver
INTESTINE
Fig. 2 metabolism of bilirubin
14. A. indirect bilirubin
(normal value = 0.3 - 1.2 mg/dl)
1. serum bilirubin:
B. direct bilirubin
(normal value ≤ 0.4 mg/dl)
C. total bilirubin
Normal value for = 0.3- 1.2 mg/dl.
Normally, a small amount of bilirubin circulates in the blood.
Serum bilirubin is considered a true test of liver function, as it
reflects the liver's ability to take up, process, and secrete bilirubin
into the bile.
15. ♣ Direct Bilirubin + Diazotized Sulfanilic Acid → Azobilirubin
(Redish purple)
♣ total bilirubin + dimethylsulfoxide(DMSO)+methanol
+diazotized sulfanilic acid to form azobilirubin.
Indirect bilirubin react with diazotized sulfanilic acid after
addition of methanol.
The absorbance of the reaction mixture at 555 nm is directly
proportional to the concentration of direct bilirubin.
VD Bergh reaction
16. 目 录
H H H
CH2
CH2
CO
N
CHO
N
CH2
N
H
CH
N
O
M M M MV VCH2
CH2
CO
O
O
OH
HO
COOH
OH
O
OH
OH
HOOC
OH
O
17. indirect
bilirubin
direct
bilirubin
Binding with Glucuronic acid no yes
Reacting with the diazo
reagent
Slow and
indirect
Rapid and
direct
solubility in water small large
Discharged via kidney no yes
Pass through the
membrane of cell
yes no
Difference of two bilirubins
18. A. urobilinogen :
Conjugated bilirubin is excreted via bile salts to intestine.
Bacteria in the intestine break down bilirubin to urobilinogen
for excretion in the feces (normal value for fecal urobilinogen
= 40 - 280 mg/day)
2. urine(/faeces)
Normally there are mere traces of urobilinogen in the
urine. average is 0.64mg , maximum normal 4mg/24hours.
B. Urobilin
Urobilin is the final product of oxidation of urobilinogen by
oxygen in air. The amount change with the amount of
urobilinogen excretion .
19. B. bilirubinurine:
Bilirubin is not normally present in urine and faese since
bacteria in intestine reduce it to urobilinogen. The kidneys
do not filter unconjugated bilirubin because of its avid
binding to albumin.
conjugated bilirubin can pass through glomerular filter.
Bilirubin is found in the urine in obstructive jaundice due
to various causes and in cholestasis.
Note:
Bilirubin in the urine may be detected even before clinical
jaundice is noted.
20. Who is a candidate for the test?Who is a candidate for the test?
Bilirubin is used to diagnosis of jaundice.
Abnormal bilirubin levels can be found in many
disorders, including: blocked bile ducts, cirrhosis,
hepatitis and other liver diseases or immature liver
development in newborns.
Hemolytic Jaundice
Hepatic Jaundice
Obstructive jaundice ( Cholestasis)
Congenital Jaundice
21. Sample Indices Normal Hemolytic
Jaundice
Hepatic
Jaundice
Obstructive
Jaundice
Serum Total Bil < 1mg/dl > 1mg/dl > 1mg/dl > 1mg/dl
Direct Bil 0 ~
0.8mg/dl
↑ ↑↑
Indirect Bil < 1mg/dl ↑↑
Urine Color normal deeper deep deep
Bilirubin — — ++ ++
Urobilinogen A little ↑ uncertain ↓
Urobilin A little ↑ uncertain ↓
Stool Color normal deeper lighter or
normal
Argilous
(complete
obstruction)
22. 2. Serum enzymes2. Serum enzymes
A large number of enzyme estimations are
available which are used to ascertain liver
function. They are be divided into two groups:
I: most commonly and routinely done in the
laboratory.
serum transaminase(ALT/AST)
serum alkaline phosphate(ALP)
II: not routinely done in the laboratory.
26. Elevated levels of GPT may indicate :
alcoholic liver disease
cancer of the liver
cholestasis or congestion of the bile ducts
cirrhosis or scarring of the liver with loss of function
death of liver tissue
Hepatitis or inflammation of the liver
noncancerous tumor of the liver
use of medicines or drugs toxic to the liver
‼ Therefore, when the liver is injured, GPT is
released into the bloodstream.
27. GOT also reflects damage to the hepatic
cells and is less specific for liver disease. It can
also be released with heart, muscle and brain
disorders.
Therefore, this test may be ordered to help
diagnose various heart, muscle or brain
disorders, such as a myocardial infarct (heart
attack).
28. Elevated levels of GOT may indicate :
acute hemolytic anemia,
acute pancreatitis or inflammation of the pancreas.
acute renal failure or loss of kidney function.
cirrhosis of the liver.
Hepatitis
heart attack
primary muscle disease
recent surgery
severe burns
muscle injury
29. ◆ normally: GPT is normal, GOT is normal, GPT/GOT is
about 1.15.
◆ Virus hepatitis: GPT↑, GOT is normal ,GPT/GOT >
1,even more than 2.5 ;
◆ chronic hepatitis : GPT↑ ,GOT ↑GPT/GOT is about 1.
◆ Liver cancer, cirrhosis, Alcohol-induced hepatitis:
GPT↑ ,GOT ↑ < 1, about 0.6~0.7.
◆ Accute myocardial infarct :< 1
Although GOT is not a specific for liver as the GPT,
ratios between GPT and GOT are useful to physicians in
assessing the etiology of liver enzyme abnormalities.
30. GPT and GOT is in the different distribution of the hepatocytes.
GPT exists primarily in the cytoplasm of liver cell. if there is a slight
liver cell damage, GPT firstly leak into the bloodstream, so that the
serum GPT increased.
The GOT mainly in the "mitochondria“of liver cells, the
mitochondria are "bubble" in the liver cell cytoplasm. if there is a
slight liver cell damage, GOT don`t leak into the bloodstream.
When the GOT was
significantly higher,
mitochondria of liver
cells are injuries.
31. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP)(ALP)
ALP occurs in all tissues, especially liver and
bone.
The alkaline phosphatase test is often used to
help diagnose certain liver diseases and bone
disorders .
Normal range: 30 - 95 IU/L (3-13 kings unit)
32. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP or AKP)Alkaline phosphatase (ALP or AKP)
ALP is a hydrolase enzyme responsible for removing
phosphate groups from many types of molecules,
including nucleotides and proteins.
– most effective in an alkaline environment
– in humans, alkaline phosphatase is present in all tissues throughout the
entire body, but is particularly concentrated in liver, bile duct, kidney,
bone, and the placenta.
Levels are significantly higher in children and pregnant
women.
33. Higher levels of ALP than normal may indicate:
liver disease
bone disease
leukemia, a cancer of the blood and bone marrow
various hormone problems
pregnancy
Lower levels of ALP than normal may indicate:
anemia, or a low red blood cell count
malnutrition
various hormone problems
34. Mechanism of increase in ALP in liver
disease:
Increase in the activity of ALP in liver disease is
not due to hepatic cell disruption , nor to a failure of
clearance , but rather to increased synthesis of hepatic
ALP .
The stimulus for this increased synthesis in patients
with liver disease has been attributed to bile duct
obstruction by stone ,tumors , intrahepatically by
infiltrative disorders or space-occupying lesions.
35. It is used for many years in differential diagnosis
of jaundice. it is increased in both infectious hepatitis
(viral hepatitis) and posthepatic jaundice, but the rise
is usually much greater in case of obstructive jaundice
.
dividing line which has been suggested is 35KA
units/ml. a value higher than 35KA units/ml is
strongly suggestive of diagnosis of obstructive
jaundice, in which very high figures even up to
200KA units/ml or more may be found.
Serum ALP is found to be normal in haemolytic
jaundice.
36. 5’-Nucleotidase5’-Nucleotidase
This enzyme is released by the liver when
the liver is injured due to bile duct obstruction or
impaired bile flow.
Normal range: 2-15 IU/L
Other enzyme (not done routinely)
37. LDH isoenzymesLDH isoenzymes
This test measures the total level of the enzyme
lactic dehydrogenase, also called LDH, in the
blood. LDH is found in body tissues and organs.
lactate dehydrogenaselactate dehydrogenase
HH HH
HH HH
HH HH
HH MM
HH HH
MMMM
HH
MMMM
MM
MMMM
MMMM
LDHLDH11
(H(H44))
LDHLDH22
(H(H33MM
))
LDHLDH33
(H(H22MM22))
LDHLDH44
(HM(HM33
))
LDHLDH55
(M(M44))
38. LDH isoenzymesLDH isoenzymes
۩ Tissue or organ injury can release LDH into the
bloodstream, thereby raising the level. So it is
usually done to see if tissue or organ damage has
occurred.
۩ If he or she suspects a heart attack or liver tissue
damage in the body.
Normal range: 115-225 IU/L
39. 3. Metabolic capacity3. Metabolic capacity::
Tests based on livers function:
carbohydrate metabolism
lipid metabolism
protein metabolism
40. Tests based on livers part in carbohydrate
metabolism
1. Glucose tolerance test
& Not of much value in liver diseases
& It is often difficult to separate the part
played by the liver from other factors
influencing glucose metabolism.
41. 2. Galactose tolerance test
Basis:
For galactose is a monosaccharide, almost exclusively
metabolized by the liver. the normal liver is able to
convert galactose into glucose; but this function is
impaired in intrahepatic disease and the amount of blood
galactose and urine galactose is excessive.
The liver can be assessed by measuring the utilization
of galactose. This is referred to galactose tolerance test.
42. ◆It is used primarily to detect liver cell injury.
◆ It can be performed in presence of jaundice.
◆ As it measured an intrinsic hepatic function, it may be
used to distinguish obstruction and non obstruction
jaundice.
43. The test is performed in the morning after a night’s
fast. a fasting blood sample is collected which serves as
“control”.40mg galactose dissolved in a cup-full of water
is given orally.further blood samples are collected at ½
hourly intervals for two hours.
oral galactose tolerance testoral galactose tolerance test
Method :
oral galactose tolerance test
IV galactose tolerance test(intravenous injection )
44. Normally or obstructive jaundice:
3gm or less of galactose are excreted in the urine
within 3 to 5 hours and the blood galactose returns to
normal within one hour.
Result:
Intrahepatic jaundice:
The excretion amounts to 4 to 5gm or more
during the first 5 hours.
45. 3. Fructose tolerance test
Normal response:
shows little or no rise in the blood sugar level. The
highest blood sugar value reached during the test should
not exceed the fasting level by more than 30 mg%.
obstructive jaundice cases:
mresult is obtained in most cases of obstructive jaundice
cases.
In infectious hepatitis or parenchymatous liver cells
damage:
rise in blood sugar is greater than above, but the
increases obtained are never very great.
46. Tests based on livers part in lipids metabolism
Cholesterol-cholesteryl ester ratio:
The liver plays an active and important role in the
metabolism of cholesterol including its
synthesis,esterification,oxidation and excretion.
Normal total blood cholesterol ranges from 150 ~
250mg/dl and approx 60 to 70% of this is in erterified form.
47. In parenchymatous liver disease:
theer is either no rise or even decrease in total
cholesterol and the ester fraction is always definitely reduced.
the degree of reduction roughly parallels the degree of liver
damage.
In severe acute hepatic necrosis:
the total serum cholesterol is usually low and may fall
below 100mg/dl, whilst there is marked reduction in the %
present as esters.
48. Tests based on livers part in amino acid metabolism
Determination of blood NH3:
Nitrogen part of amino acid is converted to NH3 in
the liver mainly by transamination and deamination
and it is converted to urea in liver only .
Normal range :
blood ammonia varies from 40μg ammonia nitrogen
per100ml of blood.
In parenchymatous liver disease:
Increases in NH3 can be found more advanced cases of
cirrhosis liver,particular when there areassociated neurological
complicate.in such cases blood levels may be over 200 μ g/ml.
49. 4. Synthetic functions:4. Synthetic functions:
1. total plasma proteins/ albumin/ globulin/
A:G ratio
2. Formation of prothrombin by liver
50. 1. Determination of total plasma proteins/ albumin/
globulin/ A:G ratio
Normal value:
total plasma proteins: 80~110mg/dl
albumin:40-50mg/dl
globulin:25~35mg/dl
A:G ratio: 1.5~2.5
This yields most useful information in chronic
liver disease.Liver is the site of albumin synthesis
and also possibly of some of α and β globulins.
51. In infectious hepatitis:
quantitative estimations of albumin and globulin
may give normal results in the early stages.qualititative
changes may be present,in early stage rise in β
-globulins and in later stages γ-globulins shows rise.
In cirrhosis liver or parenchymal liver disease:
The albumin is grossly dicreased and the globulins
are often increased,so that A:G ratio is reversed, is
characteristically seen in cirrhosis liver.
52. Albumin is an important blood protein that is
made only by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.
Serum AlbuminSerum Albumin
★ Albumin is essential for maintaining the
osmotic pressure in the vascular system. low
albumin level produce ascites.
★ Albumin is also very important in the
transportation of many substances such as drugs,
lipids, hormones and toxins that are bound to
albumin in the bloodstream.
53. Ascites :Ascites : the abnormalthe abnormal
accumulation of fluid within theaccumulation of fluid within the
abdominal and pelvic cavityabdominal and pelvic cavity
(A)Patient with alcoholic cirrhosis who
shows ascites, an umbilical hernia,
and wasting of muscle.
(B) After 2 years of abstinence and
appropriate nutrition, the patient
gained back muscle mass and his
ascites improved.
54. This test is normally performed to assist in diagnosing
diseases that affect proteins in the body, such as cancer, liver
disease, renal or intestinal problems, and immune disorders.
Normal range: 34 - 54 g/L
Abnormally low contents of albumin may indicate:
ascites
extensive burns
kidney disease
liver disease
malabsorption syndromes
55. At least 12 different proteins are involved in clotting.
Blood clotting factors are proteins made by the liver and are
associated with the incorporation of vitamin K metabolites
into a protein. When the liver is significantly injured, these
proteins are not normally produced.
PT (Prothrombin time)PT (Prothrombin time)
Estimation of plasma fibrinogenEstimation of plasma fibrinogen
APTT(activated partial thromboplastin time)APTT(activated partial thromboplastin time)
Formation of prothrombin by liver
56. Prothrombin time (protime or PT)Prothrombin time (protime or PT)
★ Prothrombin is a plasma protein that is converted into
thrombin during blood clotting.
★ Prothrombin is formed in the liver from inactive
“preprothrombin” in presence of vitamin K.
thrombinprothrombin
in presence of vitamin K
Ca2+, PL
57.
58. ★ PT is used to assess the activity of extrinsic blood
clotting pathway .
★ PT is also a useful test of liver function, since there is
a good correlation between abnormalities in
coagulation measured by PT and the degree of liver
dysfunction. PT is usually expressed in seconds and
compared to a normal control patient’s blood.
What is prothrombin time?
prothrombin time is measured as prothrombin
activity. The term prothrombin time was given to time
required for clotting to take place in plasma to III factor and
Ca+ have been added.
59. This test may be done:
when a person has a bleeding problem
to monitor a person who is taking blood-thinning medicine
before surgery to make sure a person will not bleed too
much during the operation.
It generally falls 10 - 15 seconds.
Prothrombin activity is also sometimes expressed as
“prothrombin index”, which is the ratio of prothrombin
time of the normal control to the patient’sprothrombin
time:
prothrombin index =
PT of normal control
PT OF patient
x100
60. High PT values may occur when a
person:
is taking blood-thinning medicines like warfarin
is taking other medicines, such as certain antibiotics,
that interfere with the test
has severe liver disease
has DIC-disseminated intravascular clotting, a
complex blood disorder that occurs when clotting
mechanisms are activated throughout the body
has certain rare, inherited bleeding disorders
has a vitamin K deficiency
61. Abnormally low PT values are usually not
significant. However, they may occur when
a person:
has cancer
has blood clots
is taking certain medicines, such as birth
control pills
62. Some other tests for LFTsSome other tests for LFTs
Alpha-fetoprotein Test: This protein is produced by the fetal
liver and testes indicating hepatitis or cancer.
Mitochondrial Antibodies Test: The presence of these
antibodies can indicate primary biliary cirrhosis, chronic active
hepatitis, and certain other autoimmune disorders.
Platelet count: Platelets are the smallest of all blood cells and
are involved in promoting clotting of the blood, normally a
process of healing. In cases of chronic liver disease where cirrhosis
exists, the platelet count can be lowered — although this can
occur due to many conditions other than liver disease.
Total protein: measures albumin and all other proteins in
blood, including antibodies made to help fight off infections