Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of biological molecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things. This includes organic molecules and their chemical reactions.
Biochemistry deals with body substance like enzymes, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, proteins, hormones, DNA, RNA, pigments etc.
The major objective of biochemistry is the complete understanding of all chemical processes associated with living cells at the molecular level. Some of the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism.
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells.
5. The relationship of biochemistry with the genetics, physiology, immunology, pharmacology, toxicology etc.
Biochemistry is related to almost all the life sciences and without biochemistry background and knowledge, a through understanding of health and well-being is not possible.
KFT are used for evaluating kidney functions. there are several routine tests such as urea, creatinine and uric acid. Calculation of eGFR is recommended by national kidney organization whenever creatinine serum is measured.
Serum Protein and Albumin-Globulin RatioASHIKH SEETHY
For MBBS Biochemistry Practical. Explains various methods of protein estimation and estimation of AG ratio, conditions leading to alterations in AG ratio etc.
Lipids are fatty substances that play an important role in a number of body functions. Apart from being structural components of the cells, Lipids also act as a source and mode of storage of energy for the body. The Lipid Profile Test measures the levels of specific types of lipids in the blood.
For more details, visit:
https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/lipid-profile-1909
The liver is the largest organ in the body
It is located below the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and extended approximately from the right 5th rib to the lower border of the rib cage.
KFT are used for evaluating kidney functions. there are several routine tests such as urea, creatinine and uric acid. Calculation of eGFR is recommended by national kidney organization whenever creatinine serum is measured.
Serum Protein and Albumin-Globulin RatioASHIKH SEETHY
For MBBS Biochemistry Practical. Explains various methods of protein estimation and estimation of AG ratio, conditions leading to alterations in AG ratio etc.
Lipids are fatty substances that play an important role in a number of body functions. Apart from being structural components of the cells, Lipids also act as a source and mode of storage of energy for the body. The Lipid Profile Test measures the levels of specific types of lipids in the blood.
For more details, visit:
https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/lipid-profile-1909
The liver is the largest organ in the body
It is located below the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity and extended approximately from the right 5th rib to the lower border of the rib cage.
Renal function test (RFT), also known as kidney function test is a group of tests used to assess the functions of kidney.
It is used screen for, detect, evaluate and monitor acute and chronic kidney diseases.
These are simple blood and urine tests that are used identify kidneys problems.
Tests of renal function have utility in-
Identifying the presence of renal disease
Monitoring the response of kidneys to treatment
Determining the progression of renal disease
RFT is ordered, if your doctor
thinks your kidneys may not be working properly which is known from signs and symptoms
and if you have other conditions that can harm the kidneys, such as diabetes or high blood pressure
1) Blood Glucose: Regulation, Normal Range, Health Effect, Metabolism
2) Estimation Of Blood Glucose: Procedure, Observation And Calculation, Clinical Interpretation.
Calcium (Ca2+) is both a mineral and an electrolyte which plays important roles in a number of body activities. It is vital in the formation and maintenance of healthy bones of proper density. Calcium is also essential in the process of cell signaling (communication between cells to coordinate cellular activities in a tissue and interaction with other tissues), blood clotting, and in the proper functioning of muscles, heart, and nerves. The Calcium Test (Total) measures the total amount of calcium in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/calcium-1318
Uric acid is a nitrogenous compound which is formed as a byproduct of metabolic activities and is eliminated by the kidneys. The buildup of uric acid levels in blood gives rise to a number of health conditions. The Uric Acid Test is performed to measure the levels of uric acid in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/uric-acid-1963
Renal function test (RFT), also known as kidney function test is a group of tests used to assess the functions of kidney.
It is used screen for, detect, evaluate and monitor acute and chronic kidney diseases.
These are simple blood and urine tests that are used identify kidneys problems.
Tests of renal function have utility in-
Identifying the presence of renal disease
Monitoring the response of kidneys to treatment
Determining the progression of renal disease
RFT is ordered, if your doctor
thinks your kidneys may not be working properly which is known from signs and symptoms
and if you have other conditions that can harm the kidneys, such as diabetes or high blood pressure
1) Blood Glucose: Regulation, Normal Range, Health Effect, Metabolism
2) Estimation Of Blood Glucose: Procedure, Observation And Calculation, Clinical Interpretation.
Calcium (Ca2+) is both a mineral and an electrolyte which plays important roles in a number of body activities. It is vital in the formation and maintenance of healthy bones of proper density. Calcium is also essential in the process of cell signaling (communication between cells to coordinate cellular activities in a tissue and interaction with other tissues), blood clotting, and in the proper functioning of muscles, heart, and nerves. The Calcium Test (Total) measures the total amount of calcium in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/calcium-1318
Uric acid is a nitrogenous compound which is formed as a byproduct of metabolic activities and is eliminated by the kidneys. The buildup of uric acid levels in blood gives rise to a number of health conditions. The Uric Acid Test is performed to measure the levels of uric acid in the blood.
Reference: https://www.1mg.com/labs/test/uric-acid-1963
the following document contains various diagnostic test for screening liver function. and interpretation of results, which may confirm the presence of a disease or disorder
Blood test normal values and it's importanceGOPAL KHODVE
Laboratory tests check a sample of your blood, urine, or body tissues. A technician or your doctor analyzes the test samples to see if your results fall within the normal range. The tests use a range because what is normal differs from person to person. Many factors affect test results. These include
Your sex, age and race
What you eat and drink
Medicines you take
How well you followed pre-test instructions
Your doctor may also compare your results to results from previous tests. Laboratory tests are often part of a routine checkup to look for changes in your health. They also help doctors diagnose medical conditions, plan or evaluate treatments, and monitor diseases.
The liver function tests typically include alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), serum bilirubin, prothrombin time (PT), the international normalized ratio (INR), total protein and albumin.
Essential Textbook of Biochemistry For Nursing (B.Sc.Nursing & PBN)Tapeshwar Yadav
I have relished teaching Biochemistry during my more than Ten years teaching experience in a medical, dental, nursing and health science colleges. It was because of constant inspiration from my students that I could come up with Essentials Textbook of Biochemistry for Nursing book, which hopefully would meet the inadequacies the students face in other books. In this age when the concepts in this subject are constantly changing, this book attempts to summarise the fundamentals and current state of knowledge in Biochemistry.
Biochemistry has been primarily written for the students of B.Sc. Nursing & Post Basic of Nursing (PBN) in such a way that it will also be suitable for General Medicine, Radiography, Physiotherapy, Ayurveda, Optometry, Dental and Nursing. This book can also be used as Reference for B.Sc. MLT, Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. PHARMA), Bachelor of Public Health (BPH), Bachelor of Physiotherapy (BPT), B. Ophthalmology, Bachelor of Radiography (BRT) and Biomedical Engineering students of Tribhuvan University, Purbanchal University, Kathmandu University and Pokhara University. Similarly, it will be equally useful for all the teachers, academic writers and those who are involved directly or indirectly in teaching and practising Health Sciences.
This is a basic book on Essential Textbook of Biochemistry for Nursing. The book thoroughly discusses some of the major concepts of Biochemistry and provides adequate information to help the students understand its implications in various areas of the subject. Furthermore, the book aims at equipping the students with practical cum theoretical skills. The book covers almost all the topics which have been prescribed in the Syllabus.
This is an introductory course to Biochemistry and is about medical biochemistry including the biochemical processes of - digestion & absorption of foods, metabolism of different kinds of foods & their disturbance effects in our body together with the physiological roles of different kinds of vitamins & enzymes.
The book consists of Theory as well as Practical portion. The author has tried his best to make all the concepts of each unit as lucid and simple as required for the students with supportive examples, samples, diagrams, clinical disorders and practical works. The ultimate purpose of this book is to equip the reader with comprehensive knowledge in Biochemistry with reference to basic as well as clinical aspects.
At last, I have made every effort to make the book error free, I am under no illusion. I expect constructive comments and suggestions from learners and teachers who use this book which will obviously help me in improving the future edition of the book.
Amino acids are a group of organic compounds containing two functional groups amino and carboxyl. The amino group (-NH2) is basic while the carboxyl group (-COOH) is acidic in nature.
The plasma in the liquid medium of blood (55%) in which the cell components namely Erythrocytes, Leucocytes and Platelets are suspended.
If anticoagulated blood is centrifuged, the plasma separates out as a supernatant while the cells remain at the bottom.
Plasma consists of water electrolytes metabolites nutrients proteins and hormones.
Most of the plasma proteins are synthesized in the liver.
Plasma proteins are separated by electrophoresis.
The word protein is derived from the Greek word ‘Proteios’ which means holding the first place. Berzelius (Swedish chemist) suggested the name proteins to the group of organic compounds that are important to life.
Proteins are the most abundant organic molecules of the living system.
They occur in every part of the cell and constitute about 50% of the cellular dry weight.
Proteins form the fundamental basis of structure and function of life.
Out of the total dry body weight, 3/4th are made up of proteins.
Proteins are used for body building; all the major structural and functional aspects of the body are carried out by protein molecules.
Proteins are high molecular weight polypeptides containing α-amino acids joined together by peptide linkage (-CO-NH).
The endocrine system consists of a network of ductless glands that secrete chemicals (called hormones) that affect the function of specific organs within the body, thus regulating many of the intricate functions of the body itself.
These ductless glands secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream, as opposed to releasing them externally through ducts (as do the sweat glands and the oil glands).
The field of medicine that deals with the study of the endocrine system and the treatment of the diseases and disorders of the endocrine system is known as endocrinology.
The physician who specializes in the medical practice of endocrinology
is known as an endocrinologist.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
This field combines biology as well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism
Biochemistry is a basic science which deals with chemical nature and chemical behaviour of living matter and with the reactions and processes they undergo.
“The branch of science dealing with the study of all the life processes such as control and coordination within a living organism is called Biochemistry”
Medical parasitology : study of parasites that infect human, diseases caused by them, clinical picture, their diagnosis, treatment and prevention as well as controls.
It involves drug development, epidemiological studies and study of zoonoses.
To know various terms related to parasitology.
To know about general parasites and parasitic infections.
To get knowledge about laboratory diagnosis and its importance.
To gain idea about general epidemiological aspects of parasites that affect human.
Apply basic methods of specimen collection , preservation and processing in lab.
To prevent ourselves from these infections and apply control measures.
Microbiology is the study of
living organisms of microscopic
size which includes bacteria ,
Fungi , Algae , Protozoa and Viruses. It is concerned with the forms, structure , reproduction , physiology , metabolism and classification.
Principle Of Microbiology
Medical microbiology deals with the causative agent of the infectious disease of the human , the ways in which they produce disease in the body and essential information for diagnosis and treatment.
Hematology is the branch of medicine, that is concerned with the study of blood, blood forming organs and blood diseases. It includes study of etiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and prevention of blood diseases .
After the completion of this presentation we will know about:
What is hematology and its purpose.
hematology laboratory.
Blood and its compositions and collections
Hematology lab equipment's
Some hematological tests , disease and hazards too.
It is a well known fact that metal ions have a profound effect on cellular processes
The importance or the role that ions play in cellular activity can be gauged by the fact that most cells maintain a very critical Na+ & k+ balance between the extracellular and the intracellular spaces.
Any distribution in this critical balance is to the cellular metabolism through a drastic change in the osmotic pressure resulting in cellular swelling.
An ISE operates an exactly the same principles as a PH electrode
In fact, a PH electrode is a type of ion selective electrode sensitive to hydrogen ion.
Just like a PH electrode, the electrode body contains a reference solution and an metal reference electrode
Safety cabinets are intended to protect a laboratory worker from aerosols and airborne particles.
They will not protect the person from spillages and the consequences of mishandling and poor technique.
Aerosol particles of less than 5 µm in diameter and small droplets of 5–100 µm in diameter are not visible to the naked eye.
The laboratory worker is generally not aware that such particles are being generated and may be inhaled or may cross contaminate work surface materials.
BSCs, when properly used, have been shown to be highly effective in reducing laboratory-acquired infections and cross-contaminations of cultures due to aerosol exposures. BSCs also protect the environment.
Most BSCs use high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters in the exhaust and supply systems.
The exception is a Class I BSC, which does not have HEPA filtered supply air.
The application of knowledge, techniques and equipment to prevent a personal laboratory and environmental exposure to potentially infectious agents or biohazard is known as biosafety.
Biosafety defines the containment conditions under which infectious agents can be safely manipulated.
The objective of containment is to confine biohazard and to reduce the potential exposure of the laboratory worker, persons outside of the laboratory, and the environment to potentially infectious agents.
A pipette (also called a point or a pipettor) is a laboratory instrument used to transfer a measured volume of liquid.
Pipettes are commonly used in chemistry and molecular biology research as well as clinical biochemistry tests.
Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with different levels of accuracy and precision, from single piece flexible plastic transfer pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes.
A pipette works by creating a vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw and dispense liquid.
Safe Use and Storage of Chemicals and ReagentsTapeshwar Yadav
Even in the smallest laboratory, dangerous chemicals are used directly or incorporated into stains and reagents.
Hence the correct handling and storage of hazardous chemicals is essential to prevent injury and damage.
In addition to this, to reduce accidents caused by chemicals, labeling is very important.
Laboratory Hazards, Accidents and Safety RulesTapeshwar Yadav
Injury, damage and loss by fire can be minimized when laboratory staff:
Understand how fires are caused and spread;
Reduce the risk of fire by following fire safety regulations at all times;
Know what to do if there is a fire in their laboratory;
Know how to use fire fighting equipment;
Know how to apply emergency First Aid, for burns.
Revised Curriculum of Certificate in Medical Laboratory Technology(CMLT) by C...Tapeshwar Yadav
This curriculum of 3 years Certificate in Medical Laboratory Technology is designed to produce middle level skilled laboratory personnel equipped with knowledge, skills and attitudes of medical laboratory with a view to provide diagnostic, curative, preventive and promotive laboratory services to the community. Such technicians collect specimens, process, and perform tests to analyze body fluids, tissue, and other substances. The graduates perform lab procedures and maintain instruments. The graduates are expected to perform tests that help other healthcare professionals such as physicians to detect, diagnose, and treat diseases.
The program extends over three academic years. The first year course focuses on basic science and foundational subjects, the second year course focuses on theory and practical parts of basic medical laboratory subjects. Simultaneously the third year is given to the application of learned skills and knowledge in the comprehensive practical settings, in hospitals and medical laboratory. The graduates will have career opportunities in hospitals, diagnostic laboratories, clinics, industry and physicians' offices, research centers, blood bank, crime investigating laboratories etc. It is based on the code of conduct of Nepal Health professional Council.
Clinical Pathology is the application of laboratory techniques to find out the cause of disease. Clinical pathology laboratory involves all aspect of the medicine ranging from the field of biochemistry, microbiology, Parasitology, haematology, immunology and cytogenetics etc. Clinical pathology laboratory perform qualitative and quantitative analysis of body fluid such as urine, blood, CSF, sputum, other body fluid such as synovial fluid, peritoneal fluid, pericardial fluid and plural fluid. These determinations are useful in diagnosing various clinical conditions such as diabetes mellitus, jaundice, gout, hyperlipidemia, pancreatitis, rickets, etc. The clinical pathological tests are very useful in determining the severity of diseases of many organs such as liver, stomach, heart, kidneys, brain as well as the endocrine disorders and related status of acid-base balance of the body. The clinical pathology tests, in relation to the various clinical conditions can be applicable for:-
1) Reveal the causes of the diseases
2) Screen easy diagnosis
3) Suggest effective treatment
4) Assist in monitoring progress of a pathological condition and
5) Help in assessing response to therapy
Modern medicine says that: Your practice of medicine will be as good as your understanding of pathology.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
1. CLINICAL
BIOCHEMISTRY LABORATORY
PRESENTED By:
1.Reshma Machamasi
2.Sarmila Timilsina
3.Tisha Shakya
4.Jharana Thapa
5.Karjit Dhami
PRESENTED TO:
Tapeshwar Yadav
(Lecturer)
BMLT, DNHE,
M.Sc. Medical Biochemistry
Department of Laboratory
Medicine, Nobel College of
Medical Sciences,
Kathmandu, Nepal
2. contest
Contents:
1. Introduction.
2. Objectives.
3. Scope.
4. Basic Equipment Used In Biochemistry lab.
5. Collection And Precaution of Blood.
6. General Tests.
7. Other Tests or Special Tests.
8. Safety Rules In Laboratory.
3. Introduction
Biochemistry is the study of the structure and
function of biological molecules such as proteins,
nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of
living things. This includes organic molecules and
their chemical reactions.
Biochemistry deals with body substance like
enzymes, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats,
proteins, hormones, DNA, RNA, pigments etc.
4. Objectives of biochemistry
The major objective of biochemistry is the complete understanding of
all chemical processes associated with living cells at the molecular
level. Some of the objectives can be listed as follows:
1. Isolation, structural elucidation and the determination of mode of
action of biomolecules.
2. Identification of disease mechanisms.
3. Study of in born errors of metabolism.
4. Study of oncogenes in cancer cells.
5. The relationship of biochemistry with the genetics, physiology,
immunology, pharmacology, toxicology etc.
Biochemistry is related to almost all the life sciences and without
biochemistry background and knowledge, a through understanding of
health and well-being is not possible.
5. Scope:
Biochemists work along with chemists, physicists,
healthcare professionals , engineers and so on.
They can also work for various organisatons including
hospitals , universities , education , drug discovery as well
many more professionals.
They usually involved in research related works.
They can be Biotechnologist , Research Scientist ,
Pharmacologist laboratory technician , Lecturer in an
educational institution etc.
7. 1.Centrifuge:
• It is a laboratory device
that is used for
separation of serum or
plasma from blood.
• Separation of sediment
in urine etc.
8.
9. A dry bath is
laboratory
equipment that is
used to heat
samples.
Water bath is used
to incubate sample
in water at a
constant
temperature over a
long period of
time.
15. Mainly there are three types of blood collection
Methods.
1.Capillary puncture method:
2.Arterial puncture method:
3. Vein puncture method:
For futher testing we need sample mainly blood are
use.For Biochemistry lab we may required large amount
of blood,hence vein puncture should be perform while
collecting blood.
17. 1.Data collection of patient must be done carefully.
2.Container and syringe should be dry. Otherwise, it causes
haemolysis.
3.The blood in the anticoagulant should mixed carefully.
4.Blood collection should not attempts more than three times.
5.The blood should not be force through needle.
6. Plastic tube must not used for calcium test as it adsorbs
calcium.
7. Rapid shaking of tube with blood may cause haemolysis.
19. Absence or insufficient production of
insulin causes diabetes.
There are two main types of diabetes:
Type 1 or Insulin dependent diabetes.
Type 2 or Non- insulin dependent diabetes.
20. Type 2 or non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus :
Type 2 diabetes mellitus,which is much more common occurs when the
body cannot produce enough insulin or the insulin is not working efficiently
enough.
I t was formerly known as non-insulin dependent or adult – onset diabetes
due to its occurrence mainly in people over 40.
# Gestational diabetes mellitus occurs when pregnant women have high
blood sugar levels due to hormones produced in pregnancy.
# A diagnosis of gestational diabetes means a higher risk of developing type
2 diabetes in the future.
Type 1 or insulin dependent diabetes mellitus:
Type 1 diabetes mellitus occurs when the body cannot produce insulin
which is needed to control blood sugar level.
These type of diabetes occurs in children hence also known as juvenile
diabetes.
21. Significance:
a) Hyperglycaemia (increased level of glucose ) are seen
in hyperthyroidism , hyperpituitarism , surgical
removal of pancrease , haemorrhage etc.
b) Hypoglycaemia (decreased level of glucose) are seen
in hypothroidism , hypopituitarism , severe exercise ,
starvation etc.
Normal value:
Fasting: 60 -110mg/dl.
Post Prandial: 70- 140 mg/dl.
Random: 70-140 mg/dl.
22.
23. The Renal function test or kidney
function test refers to a few
commonly used tests to screen for
renal function.
Analysis of blood and urine samples
can be essential for the evaluation of
kidney (renal) function.
It includes :
Urea
Creatinine
Uric acid
Sodium
Potassium
24. Urea is the end product of protein metabolism
which is synthesized in liver.
Increased level of urea are in renal disease,
urinary obstruction,shock burn .
Decrease level of urea are found in liver failure.
Normal value: 15-40 mg/dl.
25. Creatinine is a waste product fromed in muscle
by creatine metabolism.
It is synthesized in kidney,liver and pancrease.
Increased condition are in renal
disease,starvation,hyperthyroidism etc.
Normal value: In male= 0.7 - 1-.4 mg/dl
In female = 0.4 – 1.2 mg/dl
26. Uric acid is formed in body from the end product of
the metabolism of purines (Adenine and Guanine)
present in RNA and DNA .
It is a metabolic waste product excreted by kidney .
Increased level of uric acid (hyperuricaemia) are in
gout ,Renal failure,starvation and so on.
Decreased level of uric acid (hypouricaemia) are in
liver cirrhosis etc.
Normal value: In male= 3.5 – 7.0 mg/dl
In female= 3.5 – 6.0 mg/dl
27. It is a extracellular fluid .
It maintain heart beat,osmotic pressure and regulates body
acid-base balance.
Increased level of sodium (hypernatremia) are loss of
water from body , dehydration , diabetes mellitus etc.
Decreased level of sodium (hyponatremia) are occur due
to diarrhoea , vomitting ,edema, chronic renal disease.
Normal value: 135-145 mEq/l.
28. It is a intra cellular fluid .
It plays important role in tranmission of nerve impulse
and also in cardiac muscle activities.
Increased level of potassium (hyperkalemia) in renal
failure ,depression ,Anuria etc.
Decreased level of potassium (hypokalemia) seen in
cardio megaly ,musclar weakness etc.
Normal valve: 3.5 - 5.0 mEq/litre.
29.
30. Liver function tests measure
various chemicals in the blood
made by the liver.
An abnormal result may
indicate a problem with our
liver and may help to identify
the cause.
Further tests may be needed to
clarify the cause of liver
problem .
31. Bilirubin
SGOT(Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase)
SGPT(Serum glutamate pyruvic transaminase)
ALP (Alkaline phosphatase )
Protein
Albumin
GGT(Gamma-glutamyl transferase)
32. It is an orange or yellow pigment formed in the liver
by the break down of haemoglobin and excreted in
bile.
There are two types of bilirubin.
I. Unconjugated or Indirect bilirubin
II. Congugated or Direct bilirubin.
Increased in jaundice and haemolysis.
Normal value:
Total bilirubin=Up to 1 mg%
Direct bilirubin=Up to 0.3 mg%
Indirect bilirubin=Up to 0.7 mg%
33. It is an enzyme that is normally present in liver
and heart.
Increased level of SGOT seen in myocardial
infection, liver disease etc.
Decreased level of SGOT seen in renal dialysis,
vitamin B6 deficiency.
Normal value: Less than 40 IU/L.
34. It is an enzyme that is normally present in liver
and heart cells. SGPT is released into blood.
Increased level of SGPT seen in liver disease
such as cirrosis ,carcinoma, obstructive
jaundice.
Decreased level of SGPT seen in renal
dialysis.
Normal value: Less than 40 IU/L.
35. It is an enzyme present in all tissues of the
body
It is produced by osteoblast of bone .
It is localized in cell membrane and with
transport mechanism in liver, kidney and
intestine.
Increased level of ALP in bone disease and
obstructive jaundice.
Normal value: 108-306 IU/L.
36. The amount of proteins found in the fluid
portion of our blood.
Increased level of total protein in dehydration ,
chronic infection etc.
Decreased level of total protein in liver
disease,kidney disease,malnutrition etc.
Normal value: 5.5 - 7.8 gm/dl
37. Albumin is synthesized in liver and is present in
plasma.
Albumin transports hormones, fatty acids, and
other compounds, buffers pH and
maintains osmotic pressure among other
functions.
Increase level of serum albumin seen in
dehydration, multiple myeloma etc
Decrease level of serum albumin seen in
malnitrition, cirrhosis of liver, nephrptic
syndrome etc
38. It is a enzyme that transfers gamma-glutamyl functional
groups.
It is present in the cell membrane of many
tissues,including
kidneys,pancrease,liver,spleen,heart,brain etc.
GGT is elevated by large quantities of alcohol ingestion.
Increased level of GGT are in disese of liver , pancrease
etc.
Normal value: 10-30 IU/L.
39. A pattern of lipids in the blood.
Serum lipid profile is measured for
cardiovascular risk prediction and has now
become almost a routine test.
Fasting blood for 9-12 hours (water only) is
required.
A lipid profile usually includes the levels of
:
Total cholesterol.
High-density lipoprotein (HDL).
Triglycerides.
40. It is a type of fat found in our blood.
They are used to give energy to our body. If we
have extras, they are stored in different places
in case they are needed later.
Increased level of triglycerides are in risk of
heart disease .
Normal value: 10-190mg/dl.
Lipemic serum
41. It is a fat like substance that is found in all
body cells.
Increased level in obesity, hypothyroidism,
diabetes mellitus,cardiovascular disease.
Decreased in level Haemolytic jaundice,
intestinal obstruction etc.
Normal value:150-260mg/dl.
42. It is good or healthy cholesterol because it
transport cholestrol from tissue to liver.
Lower levels of HDL cholesterol indicate
increased risk of coronary heart disease.
Higher levels indicates negative risk factor of
coronary heart disease.
Normal value: 30 – 60 mg/dl.
43. LDL is a lipoprotein (a combination of fat and
protein) found in the blood.
It is called "bad" cholesterol because it picks up
cholesterol from the blood and takes it to
the cells.
A high LDL level is related to a higher risk of
heart and blood vessel disease.
Normal value: Upto 150 mg/dl.
44.
45. It is a endocrine and exocrine functions.
Pancreatic function tests are useful for
diagonsis of pancreatic disorders.
Glucagon is produced by α-cells of pancreas
which increase glucose level.
Insulin is produced by β- cell of pancreas which
decreases glucose level.
Pancreatic function tests includes:
Amylase
Lipase
46. It is a hydrolytic enzyme which hydrolyses
starch into maltose.
It presents in saliva and pancreatic juice where
it is secreated by parotid gland.
Increased level in acute pancreatitis , renal
failure, Appendicitis.
Normal value:150-340 U/L.
47. It is a enzyme that catalyses the break down
of fats of fatty acids.
Lipase is produced in the pancreas, mouth,
and stomach.
Highamounts of lipase may be found in
the blood when the pancreas is damaged or
when the tube leading from the pancreas
(pancreatic duct) to the beginning of the small
intestine is blocked.
Normal value: 0 – 160 U/l
48. It is a collective term
for blood tests used to
check the function of
the thyroid.
A TFT panel typically
includes thyroid
hormones such as
Stimulating
hormone (TSH,thyrotropin
)
Thyroxine (T4)
49. I. T3 (Triiodothronine):
A free or total triiodothronine test is used to assess
thyroid function.
It affects almost every physiological process in the
body including growth and development,body
temperature,heart beat.
Normal value: 1.42 – 4.2 pg/ml.
II.T4 (Thyroxine):
Free thyroxine (free T4) tests are used to help evaluate thyroid
function and diagnose thyroid diseases,
including hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism , usually after
discovering that the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) level is
abnormal.
Normal value: 0.65 – 1.97 ng/dl.
50. A thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) blood
test is used to check for thyroid gland
problems.
The cause of an hypothyroidism, TSH levels
can help determine whether hypothyroidism is
due to a damaged thyroid gland or some other
cause (such as a problem with the pituitary
gland or the hypothalamus).
Normal value: 0.4 – 5.5 µIU/ml.
51. Free T4 Free T3 Interpretation
High Normal Normal Mild (subclinical)
hypothyroidism.
High Low Normal or
low
Hypothyroidism.
Low Normal normal Mild (subclinical)
hyperthyroidism.
Low High or
normal
High or
normal
Hyperthyroidism.
Low Low or
normal
Low or
normal
Non-thyroidal illness; pituitary
(secondary) hypothyroidism.
Normal High high Thyroid hormone resistance
syndrome (a mutation in the
thyroid hormone receptor
decreases thyroid hormone
function)
TSH
52. The diagnostic tests in cardiology are methods of
identifying heart conditions associated with healthy vs.
unhealthy, pathologic heart function.
It includes the tests below:
i. CPK.
ii. CPK MB.
iii. LDH.
iv. GOT/AST.
v. Troponine.
vi. Myoglobin.
53. Creatine phosphokinase (CPK) is an enzyme in the
body.
It is found mainly in the heart, brain, and skeletal
muscle.
This article discusses the test to measure the amount of
CPK in the blood.
2.CPK- MB(isoenzyme of CPK found in heart):
The CPK-MB test is a cardiac marker used to
assist diagnoses of an acute myocardial infarction.
It measures the blood level of CK-MB, the bound
combination of two variants (isoenzymes CKM
and CKB) of the enzyme phosphocreatine kinase.
54. 3.LDH(Lactate Dehydrogenase):
Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a protein that helps
produce energy in the body.
An LDH test measure the amount of LDH in the
blood.
It is most often measured to check for tissue damage.
It is in many body tissues,especially the
heart,liver,kidney,muscles,brain,blood cells and lungs.
4.Troponine:
Troponin is a complex of three regulatory
proteins(troponin C, troponin I, and troponin T ) that
is integral to muscle contraction in skeletal
muscle and cardiac muscle, but not smooth muscle.
55. Myoglobin (symbol Mb or MB) is an iron- and oxygen-
binding protein found in the muscle tissue of
vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals.
It is related to hemoglobin , which is the iron- and
oxygen-binding protein in blood, specifically in the red
blood cells .
In humans, myoglobin is only found in the
bloodstream after muscle injury.
58. It is a major mineral element of body.
It is present in bones and teeth also present in
body fluids in small concentrations.
It also involved in blood coagulation.
Important role in muscle contraction .
Based source of calcium in milk and their product
Increased condition is Hypercalcaemia.
Decreased condition in serum hypocalcaemia.
Normal value: 8.5-11.0 mg/dl .
59. Phosphorus is an essential structural component of cell
membranes and nucleic acids.
Phosphorus is found in most food sources and is a component of
many commonly used food additives.
Phosphorus is an essential mineral that is required by every cell in
the body for normal function.
Hyperphosphatemia is observed in fasting then in post
prandial,renal failure,hypervitamininosis,cardiovascular disease
etc.
Hypophosphatemia is observed in rickets,hypoparathyroidism
etc.
Normal value: In adult= 2.5 – 5.0 mg/dl.
In children= 4.0 – 7.0 mg/dl.
60. HbA1c is a form of hemoglobin that is bound to
glucose.
The blood test for HbA1c level is routinely
performed in people with type 1 and type 2
diabetes mellitus.
Blood HbA1c levels are reflective of how
well diabetes is controlled.
The normal range for level for HbA1c is less than
6%.
HbA1c is also known as glycosylated, or glycated
hemoglobin.
61. A urine microalbumin test is a test to detect very small
levels of a blood protein (albumin) in urine.
A microalbumin test is used to detect early signs of
kidney damage in people who are at risk of developing
kidney disease.
Microalbumin tests are recommended for people with
an increased risk of kidney disease, such as those with
type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes or high blood
pressure.
Normal value: Below 20 mg/dl.
62. Urine protein test is used to detect protein in the urine
(proteinuria).
24 hrs urine protein or a random protein to creatinine
ratio may be used to monitor a person with known
kidney disease or damage.
A urine protein to creatinine ratio may be ordered on
a random urine sample if there is evidence of
significant and persistent protein in the urine.
Normal value: In male= less than 0.11.
In female= less than 0.16.
63. The 24-hour urine protein test checks the function of
the kidneys and helps detect disease.
Urine samples are collected in one or more containers
over a period of 24 hours.
When higher than normal amounts of protein are in the
urine, it’s called proteinuria. This is often a sign of
kidney damage and disease.
Normal value: less than 150 mg/day.
64. Fluid is a liquid that is made in the cavity to lubricate
the surface of the tissue that lines and covers most of
the organs in the cavities.
It included:
1) Synovial fluid: present in joints like knee joint,hip
joint,elbow joint,shoulder joint etc.
2) Pleural fluid: it is a fluid of pleural surface(around the
lung).
3) Pericardial fluid: fluid present in pericardial
sac(around the heart).
4) Peritoneal fluid: it is a straw coloured clear liquid that
is made in the abdominal cavity.
65. ADA is a protein that is produced by cells throughout the body
and is associated with the activation of lymphocytes , a type of
white blood cell that plays a role in the immune response to
infections.
An ADA test may be ordered when a person has an accumulation
of fluid in the chest cavity(pleural fluid) and has signs or
symptoms that suggest TB.
ADA activity is increased in various conditions such as liver
disease , tuberculosis , typhoid.
The average of serum ADA in TB and non-TB patients are
20.88U/L and 10.69 U/L respectively.
66. • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is a way of
looking for conditions that affect the brain and
spine.
• It is a series of laboratory tests performed on
a sample of CSF.
• CSF usually contains a small amount
of protein and glucose and may have a few
white blood cells.
67. A tumor marker is a substance present in or produced by a tumor
or by the tumor’s host in response to the tumor’s.
Hormones as tumor markers:
a. ACTH
b. ADH
c. Calcitonin
d. HCG etc
Carbohydrates as tumor marker:
1. CA 15-3
2. CA 125
3. CA 19-9 etc.
68. Name of test Normal test Significance(high)
1.RFT
# Urea 15-40 mg/dl Renal failure, Dehydration, shocks, severe
diarrhea, severe burns, etc.
#Creatinine 0.4-1.4 mg/dl Renal failure, congestive heart failure,
shock,
Obstruction in urinary tract, etc.
#sodium 135 to 145 mEq/L Thirst, fatigue, coma, rapid heart beat,
weakness, etc.
#potassium 3.5 to 5.5 mEq/L Weakness, tiredness, palpitation, etc.
2.LFT
#Bilirubin T.bili= upto 1mg%
D.bili= upto
0.4mg%
Jaundice, haemolysis, etc.
#Total protein 6.3-8.4 gm% Dehydration, multiple myeloma, etc.
69. Name of test Normal value Significance
#ALP 108-306IU/L Pregnancy, hepatic disease, osteoblast, etc.
3.LIPID PROFILE
#Triglyceride Upto 150 mg/dl Diabetes mellitus, liver disease, nephrotic
syndrome, etc.
#Total Cholesterol 150-250 mg/dl Diabetes mellitus, obstructive jaundice,
nephrosis, etc.
#HDL/Good
Cholesterol
30-60 mg/dl Diabetes mellitus, obstructive jaundice,
nephrosis, etc.
#LDL/Bad
Cholesterol
Upto 150 mg/dl Heart and blood vessel disease.
4.TFT
# Free T3 1.42 – 4.2 pg/ml.
#Free T4 0.65 – 1.97 ng/dl.
#TSH 0.4 – 5.5 µIU/ml.
70. Rules for working in a biochemistry laboratory
There are two major concerns to be considered when working in a
biochemistry laboratory. First is safety and second is efficiency in the
laboratory work. There are general rules that we students are advised to
follow:
1. Keep the benches and shelves clean and well-organized.
2. Avoid contaminating the chemicals, use only clean glassware, label
glassware in use.
3. Plan your experiments before starting to carry them out.
4. Pay attention to others in the laboratory.
71. Safety rules in the laboratory
A. Safety rules in general
1. Do not work alone in the laboratory.
2. Unauthorized experiments are not allowed.
3. Eating, drinking and smoking in the laboratory are strictly
prohibited.
4. Become familiar with the location and the use of standard
safety features in the laboratory. The laboratory is equipped
with fire extinguishers, eye washes, safety showers and first-
aid kits. Any question regarding the use of these facilities
should be addressed to your instructor.
5. Special care for eye protection is required. Safety glasses must
be used when certain procedures are being carried out.
72. B. Special safety rules
1. While heating a solution one should make sure not to overheat it.The mouth
of the glassware containing the solution to be heated should never be
pointed toward anyone.
2. Handling of strong acids and bases requires special attention. When diluting
concentrated acids, the acid should be poured into the water and never the
opposite.
3. The pipettes should never be filled with solutions of toxic substances,
biological fluids, strong acids and bases by mouth suction. Use either
automatic pipettes or pipette pumps .
4.Volatile liquids and solids that are toxic or irritating should be handled
under fume hoods.
5. While handling flammable liquids such as ether, alcohols, benzene, naked
flame (burners, matches) must not be in use. The above liquids must not be
stored near radiating heat sources, such as the laboratory oven.
6. Before using electrical appliances, make sure they are grounded.
7. Before leaving the laboratory, electrical equipment should be turned off,
and gas burners extinguished. No tap water should be left running.