This document discusses learning, memory, and higher brain functions. It covers topics like reflex learning, associative learning through classical and operant conditioning, different types of memory including implicit, explicit, semantic and episodic memory. It discusses the mechanisms of memory formation, consolidation and retrieval. It also covers higher intellectual functions of the prefrontal cortex and disorders of memory like amnesia and Alzheimer's disease.
The sensory system is the part of the nervous system that detects ,transfers and processes stimuli from the environment
http://www.asktheneurologist.com/Sensory-System.html
The sensory system is the part of the nervous system that detects ,transfers and processes stimuli from the environment
http://www.asktheneurologist.com/Sensory-System.html
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
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The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
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2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
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Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
1. DR NILESH KATE
MBBS,MD
ASSOCIATE PROF
ESIC MEDICAL COLLEGE, GULBARGA.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY
HIGHER
FUNCTIONS OF
BRAIN
LEARNING AND
MEMORY
2. OBJECTIVES
LEARNING
Incidental learning
Reflex learning
MEMORY
Implicit memory
Explicit memory
Mechanism of memory
INTERHEMISPHERIC
TRANSFER OF
LEARNING AND
MEMORY
HIGHER INTELLECTUL
FUNCTIONS OF
PREFRONTAL CORTEX
Thought process
Working memory
Episodic memory
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 2
3. LEARNING & MEMORY
Learning – Neural
mechanism by which
individual changes
behaviour on the basis of
past experience.
Memory – Acquisition ,
storage & retrieval of
sensory information
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 3
4. LEARNING .
Reflex learning.
Associated with
immediate behaviour
change.
Incidental learning.
Behaviour change not
immediate
But person gets
information from
sensory inputs &
develop potential to
behave differently.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 4HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
5. REFLEX LEARNING.
Non- associative .
Person learns about
properties of single
stimulus when
repeatedly exposed to
same stimulus.
Associative.
Person learns about
relationship between
two stimuli or a
stimulus & behaviour.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 5HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
6. NON- ASSOCIATIVE .
Habituation
Decrease in response
to benign stimulus
when stimulus
presented repeatedly.
Sensitization.
Increase in response
to benign stimulus
when stimulus
presented repeatedly.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 6HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
7. First time it evokes a novel response (orientation
response or what is it response)
Evokes less & less response when repeated
Subject becomes habituated to the
stimulus & ignores it
Habituation
If a stimulus is repeated
many times
9. Cellular basis of Habituation.
Given by KANDEL
& his collegue.
Repeated stimulus.
Inactivation of Ca
influx at axon endings.
Neurotransmitter
release at synapses.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 9
11. Cellular basis of Sensitization.
Given by KANDEL
& his collegue.
Repeated stimulus.
neurotransmitter
release at synapses.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 11
12. Due to Presynaptic
Facilitation by
third interneuron ---
Facilitatory
neuron.
which releases
SEROTONIN.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 12
Sensitization
13. Pathway in increased release of
Neurotransmitter.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 13
14. REFLEX LEARNING.
Non- associative .
Person learns about
properties of single
stimulus when
repeatedly exposed to
same stimulus.
Associative.
Person learns about
relationship between
two stimuli or a
stimulus & behaviour.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 14HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
15. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING.
Classical
conditioning.
Learning relationship
between two stimuli.
Type I, Type S,
respondant
conditioning or
Pavlovian
conditioning.
Operant
conditioning.
Learning relationship
between special
behaviour with a
reinforcement event.
Type II, Type R,
Instrumental or Trial
& error conditioning.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 15HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
16. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING.
Characteristic features.
Conditioned reflex is Reflex response.
Acquired by repeatedly pairing given stimulus with
another stimulus which normally produces the response.
Thus temporal association made between neutral
conditioned stimulus (CS) & unconditioned stimulus.
(US)
It depends upon formation of new functional connections
in CNS.
Reinforcement -- CS SHOULD FOLLOWED BY US
Saturday, February 20, 2016 16HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
18. Pre-requisites for development of
conditioned reflex.
Alertness & good health.
Timing of CS & US – CS US.
Duration of CS – Should overlap US.
Reinforcement. CS US.
No External Inhibition.
Type of US
Sensory / motor
Pleasant, unpleasant / Neutral.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 18HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
19. Physiological basis of conditioned
reflexes.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 19HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
Formation
of new
connections
in the
Nervous
system
21. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING.
Classical
conditioning.
Learning relationship
between two stimuli.
Type I, Type S,
respondant
conditioning or
Pavlovian
conditioning.
Operant
conditioning.
Learning relationship
between special
behaviour with a
reinforcement event.
Type II, Type R,
Instrumental or Trial
& error conditioning.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 21HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
22. OPERANT CONDITIONING.
Reward
conditioning.
Naturally occurring
response is
strengthened by
positive
reinforcement
( reward)
Adversive
conditioning.
Naturally occurring
response is
Weakened by
Negative
reinforcement
( Punishment)
Saturday, February 20, 2016 22HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
24. Experiment to demonstrate
Operant conditioning.
Positive Reinforcement – pressing a lever is
associated with positive reinforcement,
reward i.e. food.
Negative Reinforcement – pressing a lever
is associated with Negative reinforcement,
punishment i.e. electric shock.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 24
26. MEMORY.
Memory –
Acquisition ,
storage &
retrieval of
sensory
information
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 26
27. TYPES OF MEMORY.
Physiologically on
the basis of how
information is stored
& recalled.
Implicit memory.
Explicit memory.
Depending upon
permanency of
storage.
Short term.
Intermediate long
term.
Long term.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 27
29. TYPES OF MEMORY.
Implicit memory.
Non-declarative /
reflexive memory.
How to perform
something.
Not associated with
awareness not involve
processing in
hippocampus.
Explicit memory.
Declarative / Reconition
memory
Factual knowledge of
people, places & things.
Associated with
awareness ,Involve
processing in
hippocampus.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 29
30. IMPLICIT MEMORY.
How to perform
something.
Does not depend on
conscious process.
Includes motor skills,
habits, behavioral
reflexes & learning
procedure & rules.
Unconsciousness &
automatic
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 30
31. Implicit memory – reflexive
learning.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 31
32. EXPLICIT MEMORY.
Declarative /
Recognition memory
Factual knowledge of
people, places & things.
Associated with awareness
,Involve processing in
hippocampus.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 32
33. EXPLICIT MEMORY.
SEMANTIC MEMORY.
About knowledge of
objects, facts and
concepts.
Words & their
meanings.
EPISODIC MEMORY.
Memory of events &
personal experience.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 33
34. SEMANTIC MEMORY.
Storage of semantic
memory
In distributed fashion in
different association
cortices.
Visual memory
Auditory memory
Somatosensory
memory.
Alarm clock
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 34
35. Damage to cortical area – loss
of specific information
Associative Visual
Agnosia – posterior
parietal cortex damage –
can identify but cannot
name the objects.
Appreciative Visual
Agnosia – posterior
occipital lobe damage –
can name the objects but
cannot draw
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 35
36. EPISODIC MEMORY.
Storage of Episodic
Memory
In association area of
prefrontal cortex.
With other areas of neo-
cortex for collection of
information
Damage – Source
Amnesia.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 36
37. MECHANISM OF MEMORY.
Implicit Memory.
Habituation
Sensitization
Classical conditioning.
(already seen in previous slides)
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 37
38. MECHANISM OF LONG TERM
STORAGE MEMORY.
Implicit Memory.
CONSOLIDATION – process by which short
term memory is converted into long term.
Gene expression
New protein synthesis.
Growth
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 38
39. MECHANISM OF MEMORY.
Explicit memory.
Short term memory.
Neural substrate for encoding of memory.
Intermediate long term.
Long term.
Consolidation of memory.
Storage of memory.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 39
43. MECHANISM OF INTERMEDIATE
LONG TERM MEMORY
Intermediate Memory
due to temporary
physical or chemical
change in pre or post
synaptic membrane.
Still labile until
becomes long term by
process called –
Consolidation.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 43
45. MECHAANISM OF LONG TERM
MEMORY
Consolidation of
Memory
For mild – 5-10 min
For strong – 1 or more
hour.
If this time not given –
retrograde amnesia
E.g. – Precise time of
sleep
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 45
46. PROCESS OF CONSOLIDATION
Expression of genes
Synthesis of new
proteins
Structural changes.
Increase in no of vesicle
release sites
No of vesicles
No of synaptic terminals
Change in shape or no of
postsynaptic spines
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 46
47. RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY.
Working memory.
Components.
Attentional control
system.
Rehearsal system.
Articulatory loop.
Visuospatial sketch pad.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 47
50. LEARNING & MEMORY
Interhemispheric transfer of learning &
memory.
Experiment to demonstrate importance of corpus
callosum for interhemispheric transfer of
information.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 50HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
51. APPLIED ASPECT.
Drugs facilitating
learning & memory.
Common CNS stimulant
Caffeine, amphetamine,
Physostigmine, nicotine,
Strychnine
Mechanism of action.
By facilitating
consolidation of energy.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 51
52. AMNESIA.
Antegrade.
Inability to establish
new long term
memories
Mostly in lesions
involving
hippocampus.
Retrograde –
Inability to recall past
memories.
Amnesia greater for
recent past than remote
past.
Lesions involving
temporal lobe
(Temporal lobe
syndrome)
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 52
53. SENILE DEMENTIA.
Syndrome in elderly
people characterized by
progressive impairment of
memory & cognitive
capacity.
Causes –
Alzheimer’s disease,
Cerebrovascular disease,
Parkinsonism,Lewy body
dementia, Prion disease
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 53
55. CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES.
Loss of recent memory.
Impairment in other
areas of cognition –
language, problem
solving, judgment,
calculation, attention.
Psychiatric symptoms
Loss of spatial
orientation.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 55
56. Higher intellectual functions of
prefrontal association cortex.
Thought process.
Working memory & intellectual functions.
Episodic memory.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 56HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
57. CONCEPT OF DOMINANT
HEMISPHERE IN LANGUAGE.
Interpretive functions
of Wernicke’s area,
Angular gyrus &
Frontal motor speech
area – more developed
in Dominant
hemisphere.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 57HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.
58. CONCEPT OF DOMINANT
HEMISPHERE IN LANGUAGE.
95% left hemisphere is dominant.
Motor area for hand movement is
associate with speech area so right
handedness in 90%.
Wernicke’s area in Non-dominant
is concerned with emotional
content, intonation of spoken
language, understanding &
interpreting non-verbal, visual &
auditory experiences as
interpretation of Music.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN. 58
59. CONCEPT OF CATEGORICAL &
REPRESENTATIONAL HEMISPHERE.
Functions allotted to
left hemisphere in
right handed person.
Right hand control.
Spoken language.
Written language.
Mathematical skills.
Scientific skills.
Reasoning.
Functions allotted to right
hemisphere in right
handed person.
Left hand control.
Music awareness.
Three dimensional
awareness.
Art awareness.
Insight.
Imagination.
Saturday, February 20, 2016 59HIGHER FUNCTIONS OF BRAIN.