The document discusses lung elastance, compliance, and work of breathing. It defines key terms like elastance, compliance, and surface tension. It describes the elastance of the thoracic cage and lungs, the role of pulmonary surfactant in reducing surface tension, and how this impacts compliance and the work of breathing. Factors that affect compliance and work of breathing are examined, including diseases like respiratory distress syndrome and emphysema. Static versus specific compliance is also differentiated.
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
Ventilation and Perfusion in different zones of lungs.Gyaltsen Gurung
This powerpoint presentation will make you explore about the Perfusion and Ventilation in different zones of lungs with its co-relation with pulmonary tuberculosis.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Gas exchange between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillary blood occurs by diffusion, as will be discussed in the next chapter. Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs passively, according to their concentration differences across the alveolar-capillary barrier. These concentration differences must be maintained by ventilation of the alveoli and perfusion of the pulmonary capillaries.
Alveolar ventilation brings oxygen into the lung and removes carbon dioxide from it. Similarly, the mixed venous blood brings carbon dioxide into the lung and takes up alveolar oxygen. The alveolar Image not available. and Image not available. are thus determined by the relationship between alveolar ventilation and pulmonary capillary perfusion. Alterations in the ratio of ventilation to perfusion, called the Image not available., will result in changes in the alveolar Image not available. and Image not available., as well as in gas delivery to or removal from the lung.
Alveolar ventilation is normally about 4 to 6 L/min and pulmonary blood flow (which is equal to cardiac output) has a similar range, and so the Image not available. for the whole lung is in the range of 0.8 to 1.2. Image not available. However, ventilation and perfusion must be matched on the alveolar-capillary level, and the Image not available. for the whole lung is really of interest only as an approximation of the situation in all the alveolar-capillary units of the lung. For instance, suppose that all 5 L/min of the cardiac output went to the left lung and all 5 L/min of alveolar ventilation went to the right lung. The whole lung Image not available. would be 1.0, but there would be no gas exchange because there could be no gas diffusion between the ventilated alveoli and the perfused pulmonary capillaries.
Oxygen is delivered to the alveolus by alveolar ventilation, is removed from the alveolus as it diffuses into the pulmonary capillary blood, and is carried away by blood flow. Similarly, carbon dioxide is delivered to the alveolus in the mixed venous blood and diffuses into the alveolus in the pulmonary capillary. The carbon dioxide is removed from the alveolus by alveolar ventilation. As will be discussed in Chapter 6, at resting cardiac outputs the diffusion of both oxygen and carbon dioxide is normally limited by pulmonary perfusion. Thus, the alveolar partial pressures of both oxygen and carbon dioxide are determined by the Image not available. If the Image not available. in an alveolar-capillary unit increases, the delivery of oxygen relative to its removal will increase, as will the removal ...
Ventilation and Perfusion in different zones of lungs.Gyaltsen Gurung
This powerpoint presentation will make you explore about the Perfusion and Ventilation in different zones of lungs with its co-relation with pulmonary tuberculosis.
Ventilation perfusion ratio (The guyton and hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Ventilation perfusion ratio is :
“The ratio of alveolar ventilation and the amount of blood that perfuse the alveoli”.
FORMULA
It is expressed as VA/Q.
VA is alveolar ventilation
Q is the blood flow (perfusion)
Normal value of ventilation perfusion ratio is about
0.8
VA is 4.2 L /min
Q is 5.5 L/min (Same as Cardiac output)
So VA/Q = 4.2/5.5 = 0.8
If VA becomes zero ratio becomes zero
If Q becomes zero ratio becomes infinite.
If ratio becomes zero or infinite then there is no gaseous exchange. So this ratio indicates the efficiency of gaseous exchange in lungs.
In standing or sitting position this ratio is not uniform in all parts of the lungs.
In standing position, in upper parts of lungs there is almost no blood flow so normally in upper parts of lungs the ratio is higher may be near 3.
In lower part of lungs, there is more blood flow so the ratio is decreased may be 0.6.
In certain diseases the VA/Q ratio is higher which means perfusion is inadequate i.e. in some parts of lungs the alveoli are non functional or partially functional. This is seen in cases of pulmonary thrombosis or embolism.
When there is higher VA/Q ratio, PO2 and PCO2 in the alveolar air resembles the values in the inspired air.
When exchange is not occurring because of lack of perfusion, inspired air goes to alveoli, as there is no exchange occurring so the same values of PCO2 and PO2 as in inspired air.
Outline the various factors affecting airway resistance and correlate it to changes in pulmonary ventilation.
Describe the metabolism of surfactant, discuss its significance and relate its deficiency to clinical conditions.
Define compliance of the lung and chest wall, illustrate and discuss the compliance curve and describe the effect of surfactant on it.
Discuss work of breathing and relate it to clinical conditions.
Respiratory physiology is a branch of physiology that studies the mechanics, chemistry, and control of respiration. Respiration is the process by which an organism exchanges gases with its environment. In humans, respiration is the process by which we take in oxygen from the air and release carbon dioxide back into the air.
The mechanics of respiration are the processes by which air is moved into and out of the lungs. This is done by the muscles of the respiratory system, which include the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, and the muscles of the larynx. The details of how the respiratory system carries out its functions are covered in this course.
The main objective of this course is that readers should:
1. Know the meaning of respiration
2. Be able to explain how the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures vary during ventilation and relate these pressure changes to Boyle's law.
3. Be able to define the terms compliance and elasticity and explain how these lung properties affect ventilation.
4. Be able to discuss the significance of surface tension in lung mechanics, explain how the law of Laplace applies to lung function, and describe the role of pulmonary surfactant.
5. Be able to know the pulmonary function tests and their importance. e.t.c.
Surfactant & compliance, LAW OF LAPLACE, Work of Breathing (the guyton and ha...Maryam Fida
It is a lipoprotein mixture present in thin layer of fluid lining the alveoli at the air fluid interface.
COMPOSITION
It is composed of
Apoprotein
Calcium ions
Phospholipids i.e. dipalmitoyl lecithin
Surfactant is secreted by
1. Mainly type II alveolar cells in the lungs.
2. Clara cells, which are situated in the bronchioles.
It lowers the surface tension of fluid lining the alveoli.
Surface tension is inversely proportional to surfactant concentration.
During inspiration surfactant molecules move apart as lungs are expanded and during expiration surfactant molecules become concentrated as lungs shorten.
When there is no surfactant, Surface Tension is 50 dynes/cm. when surfactant is present it is 5-30 dynes/cm depending upon the concentration
Prevents collapse of lungs
Stabilize size of alveoli
Surfactant helps to keep lungs expanded. If there is deficiency of surfactant then the pressure of -20 to -30 mm of Hg will be required to keep the lungs expanded
Surfactant also helps to keep the alveoli dry and prevent development of pulmonary edema.
Surfactant is also helpful in lung expansion at birth. If there is deficiency then there is Respiratory Distress Syndrome.
LAW OF LAPLACE:
pressure required to keep a hollow viscous distended = 2 T/R
Where T is tension and R is radius.
During expiration, size of alveoli decreases so R is decreased and if T does not decrease, much higher pressure will be required to keep the alveoli distended.
When adequate amount of surfactant is there T also decreases so increased pressure is not required. This prevents the collapse of lungs and also stabilizes the equal size of alveoli
Definition:
“Compliance is the measure of expansibility or distensibility of the lungs. It indicates with how much ease lungs can be expanded”.
Work of Breathing
In certain diseases there is increased work of breathing and depending upon the nature of breath there will be specific increase in work of breathing.
In asthma there is increase in work of breathing to overcome airway resistance
In restrictive lung diseases there is increase work of breathing in both tissue resistance and elastic recoil.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
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2. OBJECTIVES.
Pulmonary Elastance
Elastance of thoracic cage
Elastance of Lungs
Alveolar surface tension
Pulmonary surfactant
Pulmonary Compliance
Def, NR
Measurement
Static Vs Specific
Work of breathing
3. PULMONARY ELASTANCE
Elastance –
Def – recoil of Retractive tendency of any structure.
Elastance of Thoracic cage
Elastance of lungs
Friday, May 14, 2021
4. ELASTANCE OF THORACIC CAGE
Constant tendency of thoracic cage to expand
which is normally kept partially pulled inward.
It is because of the elastic nature of ribs, muscles
and tendons.
Friday, May 14, 2021
5. ELASTANCE OF LUNGS
Constant tendency of lungs to collapse
Tissue forces
Presence of many elastic tissues such as smooth
muscle, elastic and collagen in the lung parenchyma
Surface forces – alveolar surface tension.
Friday, May 14, 2021
6. ALVEOLAR SURFACE TENSION
Surface of alveolar
membrane lined by liquid
Unbalance attraction of
liquid molecules at surface
creates surface tension --
Vander wall forces.
Surface tension increases
the tendency of the lungs
to deflate/collapse.
Friday, May 14, 2021
7. Law of laplace
P=2T/r
Therefore, small alveoli
tend to become still smaller
whereas large alveoli tend
to become still larger
Friday, May 14, 2021
8. PULMONARY SURFACTANT
Source – type II alveolar epithelial
cells(granular pneumocytes).
Composition – DPPC (Dipalmitoyl-
phosphatidylcholine)
Mechanism of action
Hydrophilic portion
Hydrophobic portion
Friday, May 14, 2021
9. Mechanism of action.
Hydrophilic portion
Hydrophobic portion
This causes spreading of surfactant molecules
over the surface of fluid lining the alveoli.
Apoproteins and calcium ions are responsible
for uniform and quick spreading of surfactant
molecules over the surface.
Friday, May 14, 2021
10. Functions
The tendency of alveoli to collapse
Work of breathing
Prevents pulmonary oedema Pulls fluid from the
capillaries into the interstitial space surrounding the
alveoli and into the alveoli leading to pulmonary oedema.
Alveolar stabilization.
Pulling pressure 18 cm of H2O
4 cm of H2O
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11. MECHANISM OF ALVEOLAR
STABILIZATION
In the presence of
surfactant
ST = 1/ Surfactant.
Other factors
Interdependence of
alveolar septa
Fibrous tissue.
Friday, May 14, 2021
12. Factors affecting pulmonary
surfactant
.
• Long term inhalation
of 100% O2
.
• Occlusion
• Main bronchus
• Pulmonary artery.
.
• Cigarate smoking.
• Cutting vagi.
Friday, May 14, 2021
• Thyroid hormones
. • Glucocorticoids
.
14. Respiratory distress syndrome of
newborn.(Hyaline membrane disease)
In the newborn babies
(especially premature) -
Inadequate formation of
surfactant
The formation of hyaline
(translucent) membrane
by an albuminous fluid in
the wall of alveoli and
respiratory bronchioles
An elevated alveolar
surface tension -
extremely difficult to
expand the lungs
Friday, May 14, 2021
15. Treatment
Therapy of RDS includes administration of
exogenous surfactant and application of
positive-end expiratory pressure (PEEP).
Friday, May 14, 2021
16. Adult respiratory distress
syndrome
Due to the abnormal surfactant function
caused by a variety of severe pulmonary
injuries.
Friday, May 14, 2021
17. Patchy atelectasis.
In patients who have undergone cardiac
surgery during which a pump oxygenator is
used and the pulmonary circulation is
interrupted.
Friday, May 14, 2021
19. Definition & Normal value
C= δV/ δ P
Transpulmonary pressure = alveolar
pressure – pleural pressure.
Normal value
Both 0.13L/cm of H2O
Lung alone 0.22 L/cm of H2O
Friday, May 14, 2021
22. FACTORS AFFECTING COMPLIANCE
Elastic forces of the
lung tissue – mainly
due to elastic &
collagen fibres (1/3rd)
Elastic forces caused
by surface tension
(2/3rd)
Friday, May 14, 2021
23. Static vs Specific Lung
Compliance
Static compliance
Depend upon size
Amount of functional
lung tissue.
Specific lung
compliance
Compliance of the lung
at relaxation volume
i.e. at the end of tidal
expiration
FRC.
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24. LUNG COMPLIANCE CHANGES
• Emphysema
• Ageing process
• .
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• Lung diseases (TB,
Silicosis)
• Destruction of
functional lung tissue.
• RLD
25. Work of breathing
Contraction of respiratory
muscles.
Expansion of thoracic cage
& Lungs
Decreases intra alveolar
pressure & push air inside
Friday, May 14, 2021
28. AIRWAY RESISTANCE
Friction of gas molecules and wall of airways.
Factors affecting
Rate of gas flow
Airway radius. Poiseuille-Hagen formula
Resistance α 1/r4
Length of airway
Type of airflow
Friday, May 14, 2021
29. CONTROL OF AIRWAY DIAMETER
Sympathetic adrenergic – Bronchodilataion
Vagus – bronchoconstriction & Mucous
formation.
Friday, May 14, 2021
30. COMPONENTS OF WORK OF
BREATHING
Work done to overcome
Elastic resistance (65%)
Viscous resistance (7%)
Airway resistance (28%)
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31. CALCULATION OF WORK OF
BREATHING
Work done during inspiration
Work done during Expiration
Friday, May 14, 2021
32. WORK DONE DURING
INSPIRATION
Compliance work refers to
the work done by respiratory
muscles to inflate the lungs
against the elastic resistance
of chest wall and lungs.
It is represented by the
triangular area Thus most of
the work done (65%) is used
to overcome elastic
resistance.
Friday, May 14, 2021
33. Non-elastic resistance work
Work is done to overcome the nonelastic
resistance.
It includes the work done to overcome:
Viscous resistance of lungs (7%) and
Airway resistance (28%).
Friday, May 14, 2021
34. WORK DONE DURING
EXPIRATION
Since in quiet breathing,
expiration is a passive
process so no work is done
during expiration.
When the lungs are recoiling
back some energy is required
to overcome non-elastic
resistance, i.e. the airway
resistance plus viscous tissue
resistance.
Friday, May 14, 2021
37. APPLIED
Work of breathing in
Restrictive lung diseases
Obstructive lung diseases.
Friday, May 14, 2021
38. FACTORS AFFECTING TOTAL WORK
OF BREATHING.
Total work of breathing in quiet respiration
0.3-0.8 kg mt/min.
Increases
As resistance increases
Muscular exercise.
Friday, May 14, 2021
39. Objectives seen……
Pulmonary Elastance
Elastance of thoracic cage
Elastance of Lungs
Alveolar surface tension
Pulmonary surfactant
Pulmonary Compliance
Def, NR
Measurement
Static Vs Specific
Work of breathing
Friday, May 14, 2021