This document provides an overview of morphological learning, which is the study of morphemes and how they are combined to form words. It discusses the key concepts of morpheme, which is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit, and word structure. There are four types of word structures: simple words, derived words, repeated words, and compound words. A number of Tagalog compound words and their meanings are listed as examples. The relationship between morphology and morphemes is also explained, with morphemes defined as the smallest meaningful linguistic units that cannot be divided without losing meaning.
Ikalimang Bahagi -Mga Pagsubok na Hinarap ni Don JuanKim Libunao
Ikalimang Bahagi -Mga Pagsubok na Hinarap ni Don Juan para kay Donya Maria Blanca, kalakip ay mga gawain o pagsasanay upang higit na maunawaan ang aralin.
This document contains several Burmese poems with themes of love, loss, city life, and politics. The poems explore complex emotions and relationships through vivid imagery and metaphor. Overall, the collection offers a glimpse into Burmese culture and society through the lens of poetry.
Ikalimang Bahagi -Mga Pagsubok na Hinarap ni Don JuanKim Libunao
Ikalimang Bahagi -Mga Pagsubok na Hinarap ni Don Juan para kay Donya Maria Blanca, kalakip ay mga gawain o pagsasanay upang higit na maunawaan ang aralin.
This document contains several Burmese poems with themes of love, loss, city life, and politics. The poems explore complex emotions and relationships through vivid imagery and metaphor. Overall, the collection offers a glimpse into Burmese culture and society through the lens of poetry.
Mga Paniniwala at Kaugalian ng mga Sinaunang AsyanoIrral Jano
Inihahandog po ng aming grupo ang isang maiksing presentasyon tungkol sa mga paniniwala ng mga Sinaunang Asyano. Ito po ay para sa aming asignaturang 'Araling Panlipunan.' Ang ibang inpormasyon po rito ay hindi mismo galing sa amin ngunit galing ito base sa aming mga saliksik.
Mitolohiya mula sa Iceland
ni Snorri Sturluson
(Isinalin ni Sheila C. Molina)
*Mga Elemento ng Mitolohiya
*Mga Gabay na Tanong
*Mga Gawain
Mga Elemento ng Mitolohiya
Tauhan
mga diyos at diyosa na may taglay na kakaibang kapangyarihan
mga karaniwang mamamayan sa komunidad
Tagpuan
may kaugnayan ang tagpuan sa kulturang kinabibilangan
sinaunang panahon naganap ang kuwento ng mitolohiya
Banghay
maraming kapana-panabik na aksyon at tunggalian
maaaring tumalakay sa pagkakalikha ng mundo at
mga natural na pangyayari.
panahon at interaksyong nagaganap sa araw, buwan at daigdig
4. Tema
ipinaliliwanag ang natural na mga pangyayari
pinagmulan ng buhay sa daigdig
pag-uugali ng tao
mga paniniwalang panrelihiyon
katangian at kahinaan ng tauhan
mga aral sa buhay
Ano ang ikinagalit ni Thor sa magsasaka at sa pamilya nito? Paano sila pinarusahan ni Thor?
Bakit nagalit si Thor kay Skrymir? Ano ang nangyayari kapag sa galit niya ay hinahampas niya ng maso si Skrymir?
Anu-anong paligsahan ang nilahukan ng mga panauhin sa kaharian ni Utgaro-Loki? Ilahad ang naging resulta nito.
Loki vs Logi
Thjalfi vs Hugi
Thor vs cupbearer
Ano ang ipinagtapat ni Utgaro-Loki kay Thor nang sila’y paalis na? Iparinig ito sa klase. Ilahad ang pangunahing paksa at ideya batay sa napakinggang usapan ng mga tauhan.
5. Kung ikaw si Thor at kaniyang mga kasama, ilarawan ang iyong magiging damdamin kapag nalaman mong nalinlang ka sa paligsahan? Bakit?
6. Paano mo maiuugnay ang mga pangyayari sa mitolohiyang nabasa sa pamumuhay ng tao ngayon?
Panuto: Magbigay ng mga salitang maisasama sa punong salita upang makabuo ng iba pang kahulugan. Gawin sa kalahating papel.
Halimbawa :
Panuto: Suriin ang elementong taglay ng binasang mitolohiya sa pamamagitan ng pagsagot sa mga tanong sa flow chart.
Mga alamat na nahahati sa dalawa: piksyon at di-piksyon. Mga Piksyon: Ang Leon At Ang Daga, Ang Alamat ng Pinya, Ang Alamat ng Mangga, ALAMAT NG MAKOPA, ALAMAT NG LANSONES. Mga di-piksyon: Karera atbp.
Mga Paniniwala at Kaugalian ng mga Sinaunang AsyanoIrral Jano
Inihahandog po ng aming grupo ang isang maiksing presentasyon tungkol sa mga paniniwala ng mga Sinaunang Asyano. Ito po ay para sa aming asignaturang 'Araling Panlipunan.' Ang ibang inpormasyon po rito ay hindi mismo galing sa amin ngunit galing ito base sa aming mga saliksik.
Mitolohiya mula sa Iceland
ni Snorri Sturluson
(Isinalin ni Sheila C. Molina)
*Mga Elemento ng Mitolohiya
*Mga Gabay na Tanong
*Mga Gawain
Mga Elemento ng Mitolohiya
Tauhan
mga diyos at diyosa na may taglay na kakaibang kapangyarihan
mga karaniwang mamamayan sa komunidad
Tagpuan
may kaugnayan ang tagpuan sa kulturang kinabibilangan
sinaunang panahon naganap ang kuwento ng mitolohiya
Banghay
maraming kapana-panabik na aksyon at tunggalian
maaaring tumalakay sa pagkakalikha ng mundo at
mga natural na pangyayari.
panahon at interaksyong nagaganap sa araw, buwan at daigdig
4. Tema
ipinaliliwanag ang natural na mga pangyayari
pinagmulan ng buhay sa daigdig
pag-uugali ng tao
mga paniniwalang panrelihiyon
katangian at kahinaan ng tauhan
mga aral sa buhay
Ano ang ikinagalit ni Thor sa magsasaka at sa pamilya nito? Paano sila pinarusahan ni Thor?
Bakit nagalit si Thor kay Skrymir? Ano ang nangyayari kapag sa galit niya ay hinahampas niya ng maso si Skrymir?
Anu-anong paligsahan ang nilahukan ng mga panauhin sa kaharian ni Utgaro-Loki? Ilahad ang naging resulta nito.
Loki vs Logi
Thjalfi vs Hugi
Thor vs cupbearer
Ano ang ipinagtapat ni Utgaro-Loki kay Thor nang sila’y paalis na? Iparinig ito sa klase. Ilahad ang pangunahing paksa at ideya batay sa napakinggang usapan ng mga tauhan.
5. Kung ikaw si Thor at kaniyang mga kasama, ilarawan ang iyong magiging damdamin kapag nalaman mong nalinlang ka sa paligsahan? Bakit?
6. Paano mo maiuugnay ang mga pangyayari sa mitolohiyang nabasa sa pamumuhay ng tao ngayon?
Panuto: Magbigay ng mga salitang maisasama sa punong salita upang makabuo ng iba pang kahulugan. Gawin sa kalahating papel.
Halimbawa :
Panuto: Suriin ang elementong taglay ng binasang mitolohiya sa pamamagitan ng pagsagot sa mga tanong sa flow chart.
Mga alamat na nahahati sa dalawa: piksyon at di-piksyon. Mga Piksyon: Ang Leon At Ang Daga, Ang Alamat ng Pinya, Ang Alamat ng Mangga, ALAMAT NG MAKOPA, ALAMAT NG LANSONES. Mga di-piksyon: Karera atbp.
Introduction to neuroscience presentation on memory and learningAlexisRobles37
The document discusses memory, learning, and the brain structures involved. It covers:
- The hippocampus is central to declarative memory formation and transferring memories from short-term to long-term memory. Damage results in anterograde amnesia.
- Patient H.M.'s case showed the hippocampus is critical for forming new memories after its removal, causing anterograde amnesia.
- Structures like the amygdala and ventral striatum are also involved in emotional memory formation and reward conditioning.
- Synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation in the hippocampus are thought to underlie memory formation and storage at the cellular level.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves assembling information from the senses. Consolidation converts encoded information into a permanent form stored in the hippocampus and surrounding areas. Retrieval allows accessing stored memories. Learning refers to long-lasting behavior changes from practice or repetition and includes associative learning like classical and operant conditioning as well as observational learning. Studies in Aplysia show how sensitization and habituation produce long-term synaptic changes through mechanisms like presynaptic facilitation and CREB activation. Long-term potentiation in hippocampus involves strengthening synapses through NMDA receptor activation and protein synthesis.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves assembling information from the senses. Consolidation converts encoded information into a permanent form stored in the hippocampus and surrounding areas. Retrieval allows accessing stored memories. Learning refers to long-lasting behavior changes from practice or repetition and includes non-associative learning like habituation and associative learning like classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning associates a stimulus with a response while operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to modify behaviors. Studies in Aplysia show how sensitization and habituation produce long-term changes in synaptic connections related to learning. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus involves strengthening synapses and is important for spatial memory.
This document discusses several theories related to learning and factors that can affect learning. It covers the following key points:
1. It describes different types of learning, including perceptual learning, stimulus-response learning, motor learning, and relational learning.
2. It discusses how stimulus-response learning involves classical and instrumental conditioning and the role of reinforcement.
3. It identifies several factors that can influence learning, including intellectual, learning, physical, mental, emotional, and social factors. Low intelligence, deficiencies in previous learning, health issues, attitudes, emotions, and social environment are among the factors mentioned.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, including procedural and declarative memory systems, and models like Aplysia and cerebellum that are used to study these mechanisms at the neuronal and molecular level. It discusses various forms of learning like habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning; and memory mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that involve modification of synaptic strength through molecular cascades and changes in gene expression.
Stimuli can elicit reflexive or voluntary responses in organisms. A reflex is an involuntary, rapid response that involves at least three neurons: a sensory neuron that detects the stimulus, a relay neuron that passes the message to a motor neuron, which initiates the response in an effector like a muscle. Reflex arcs allow for quick, protective responses without conscious thought. Voluntary responses involve higher-level processing and are under conscious control.
The document provides an overview of the nervous system, including its organization and main components. It discusses the functions of the nervous system in gathering sensory information and coordinating motor responses to maintain homeostasis. The central and peripheral nervous systems are introduced. Key aspects of neurons like dendrites, axons, and types are summarized. The roles of neuroglia in supporting neurons is outlined. Classification and properties of nerve fibers are presented. The generation and propagation of action potentials and nerve impulses are described briefly. An overview of receptors, synapses, and major neurotransmitters is also provided.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting strengthening of synapses based on timing of neural activity. It is believed to be the cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory. LTP occurs when presynaptic activation repeatedly followed by postsynaptic spiking. This coincident activity causes calcium influx and initiates changes that strengthen synaptic connections. [END SUMMARY]
The document discusses Hebbian learning and memory principles, including the idea that neurons that fire together wire together. It describes how sensory neurons can learn associations between stimuli and actions or rewards. It also discusses various mechanisms of synaptic plasticity, including pre-synaptic and post-synaptic changes, and spike-timing dependent plasticity. Fear conditioning is used as an example of associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive stimulus through the amygdala.
The document provides information on the nervous system, including:
1) It describes the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and integrates sensory information and initiates responses. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of nerves that originate from the brain and spinal cord.
2) It explains how neurons transmit signals via nerve impulses through changes in their membrane potentials, including the processes of depolarization and repolarization during an action potential.
3) Synapses are the junctions between neurons where neurotransmitters are released to stimulate the next neuron and transmit signals throughout the nervous system.
The document discusses learning and memory. It defines different types of memory including working memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It describes classical and operant conditioning. The stages of memory storage and types of amnesia are outlined. Biochemical processes involved in memory storage like long-term potentiation are explained. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by amyloid plaque buildup in the brain leading to neuronal loss and deterioration of memory and other cognitive abilities.
The document discusses the nervous system and how it functions. It begins by explaining that the nervous system controls and communicates for the entire body using electrical impulses. It then describes how nerve impulses travel through neurons and the physiology of signal transmission, including the roles of neurotransmitters, depolarization, and repolarization. Finally, it discusses the autonomic nervous system and its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions which work antagonistically to regulate functions like digestion and the fight or flight response.
This document summarizes the central nervous system, including synapses, synaptic transmission, synaptic plasticity, memory, and spinal reflexes. Some key points:
- Synapses allow communication between neurons via either electrical or chemical transmission. Chemical synapses use neurotransmitters to excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron.
- Synaptic plasticity allows synapses to strengthen or weaken based on use, and is involved in memory and learning. Types include habituation, sensitization, and long-term potentiation.
- Memory can be implicit (non-declarative) such as habituation and sensitization, or explicit (declarative) involving conscious recall, which involves areas like the hippocampus and cortex.
- Sp
This document summarizes different types of memory. It describes short-term memory which lasts seconds to minutes, intermediate long-term memory which lasts days to weeks, and long-term memory which can last years. The mechanisms of each are explained, such as synaptic facilitation and structural changes involved in long-term memory formation. Learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge through experience and instruction, and rewards/punishments are believed to be involved in many types of learning.
UROTRANSMITTERS-NEUROMODULATORS
More than 50 chemical substances
1.Small molecules with rapid effects
Stored in axonal vesicules
Effect on postsynaptic membrane approx. 1 ms, -opening of ion channels,
Brief inactivation, recycled, fromed in the body of neurons
Class I. ACH
Class II. Amines : NA, A, Dopamin, serotonin, histamin
Class III. Aminoacids: GABA, Glycin, Glutamate, Aspartate
Class IV. NO
2. NEUROPEPTIDES,prolonged effects, are integral part of protein molecules
In neuronal bodies, are fromed in the bodies and compose the vesicules inside of them,
then they are brought to the axonal terminals with longlasting effect (hours -days)
Modulates the expression of genes
A.Hypothalamic releasing hormones
B.Pituitary peptides: beta-endorfin, MSH, Prolactin, GH, vasopresin, oxytocin,
ACTH, LH, TSH
C. Peptides operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides Peptides operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides you are operating in GIT and brain:Leucin, enkefalin, methionin
substance P, gastrin, cholecystokinin, VIP, neurotensin, insulin, glucagon
D. From other tissues: angiotensin II, Bradykinin, Carnosin, calcitonin, sleep peptides you
Limbic system by Dr.Mrs Sunita M Tiwale, Professor, Dept of Physiology, DYPM...Physiology Dept
Introduction :
Emotions play very important role in our day to day life.
Aid in the survival of individual.
Makes person more successful in the struggle of existence.
These emotions are developed in a specialised system of CNS - Limbic system.
The document outlines the key concepts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS). It begins by comparing the ANS and somatic nervous system, noting the ANS innervates cardiac and smooth muscle and glands. It then describes the two divisions of the ANS - the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions - and their roles in maintaining homeostasis. The document proceeds to discuss ANS anatomy, including pathways and ganglia, as well as physiology concepts such as neurotransmitters. It concludes by examining homeostatic imbalances related to the ANS and developmental aspects.
This document discusses neurons, neurotransmitters, and their impact on human behavior. It defines key terms like neuron, dendrite, axon, synapse, and neurotransmitter. It explains how neurons communicate via neurotransmitters released at the synapse between neurons. Serotonin imbalance is linked to depression, and SSRIs work by blocking serotonin reuptake. The document also summarizes a study that found acetylcholine plays a role in memory formation by manipulating its levels in rats. Dopamine is associated with reward and motivation rather than directly creating pleasure.
AQA Psychology A Level Revision Cards - Biopsychology Topicaesop
revision cards for aqa psych paper 2 biopsychology topic. please excuse spelling or grammar mistakes! made entirely by me using the standard year 1/2 textbook, for reference i achieved an a* :)
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
1. Lecture Notes - Week 10
Learning - Chapter 14
TYPES OF LEARNING
1) Perceptual learning – ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been
seen before
Primary function is to identify and categorize objects and situations
Changes within the sensory systems of the brain
2) Stimulus-response learning – ability to learn to perform a particular
behavior when a certain stimulus is present
Establishment of connections between sensory systems and motor systems
Classical conditioning – association between two stimuli
o Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response (UR),
Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)
o Hebb rule – if a synapse repeatedly becomes active at about the same
time that the postsynaptic neuron fires, changes will take place in the
structure or chemistry of the synapse that will strengthen it (see Figure
14.1)
o Rabbit experiment – tone paired with puff of air
Instrumental conditioning – association between a response and a stimulus;
allows an organism to adjust its behavior according to the consequences of that
behavior
o Reinforcement – positive and negative
o Punishment
3) Motor learning – establishment of changes within the motor system
4) Relational learning – involves connections between different areas of the
association cortex
5) Spatial learning – involves learning about the relations among many stimuli
6) Episodic learning – remembering sequences of events that we witness
7) Observational learning – learning by watching and imitation other people
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
2. long-term increase in the excitability of a neuron to a particular synaptic input
caused by repeated high-frequency activity of that input
hippocampal formation - specialized region of the limbic cortex located in the
temporal lobe. It contains:
o entorhinal cortex whose axons grow toward the dentate gyrus, forming
the perforant path
o dentate gyrus projects to pyramidal cells in CA3
o pyramidal cells project both to CA1 and to basal forebrain
associative long-term potentiation - produced by association in time between
2 sets of synapses; weaker strengthens after being paired with stronger synapse
series of pulses delivered at a high rate all in one burst will produce long-term
potentiation, but not the same number of pulses given at a slow rate
o there are aftereffects which serve to prime future pulses by depolarizing
the postsynaptic membrane
o long-term potentiation requires two events:
1. activation of synapses
1. depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron
NMDA receptors - type of glutamate receptor, critical in long-term
potentiation
o found in hippocampus, mostly CA1
o controls a calcium ion channel which normally is blocked by a
magnesium ion
o even the channel is stimulated by glutamate, calcium ions can’t get past
the magnesium
o but, if the membrane is depolarized, then the magnesium is ejected and
the channel can admit calcium ions
o therefore, need both glutamate and depolarization to admit calcium
o calcium is critical for long-term potentiation - both necessary and
sufficient
entry of calcium activates some calcium dependent enzymes
1) protein kinase C (PKC) - normally in
cytoplasm, activated by calcium to increase
synaptic transmission
2) CaM-KII - when activated by calcium it
remains active even after calcium is gone,
until deactivated by another enzyme
3. 3) tyrosine kinase - also plays a role in long-
term potentiation
o nitric oxide - soluble gas used as a messenger in various parts of the
body
produced by nitric oxide synthase in postsynaptic cell,
communicates with presynaptic terminal buttons - retrograde
effect
o dendritic "spikes" - what are they? How do they happen? Why are they
significant?
AMPA receptors - control sodium channels - involved once long-term potentiation
has occurred
Long-term depression - low-frequency stimulation of the synaptic inputs to a cell
can decrease their strength; opposite of Hebb rule - weak synapses not associated with
strong ones become weaker
PERCEPTUAL LEARNING
Involves learning about things, not what to do when they are present
Simple perceptual learning, recognizing stimuli, takes place in appropriate
regions of sensory association cortex
1) Visual Learning
inferior temporal cortex - necessary for visual pattern discrimination, receives
info from visual cortex
ventral/dorsal streams - what and where
delayed matching-to-sample task - requires that stimulus be remembered for
a period of time
o "remembering" the stimulus involves a neuronal circuit; it is the circuits,
not the individual neurons that recognize particular stimuli
o lesions of inferior temporal cortex disrupts an animal’s ability to
remember what it has just seen
o electrical stimulation of the inferior temporal cortex during the delay
causes forgetting
responses of single neurons in inferior temporal cortex recorded when pairs of
stimuli shown
o found that when stimuli are paired, the neural circuits responsible for
recognizing them become linked together
o perception of either stimulus activates both circuits
4. visual long-term memory involves the establishment of new circuits in the
inferior temporal cortex by means of synaptic changes
2) Auditory Learning
auditory learning tasks modify response characteristics of neurons in various
parts of the auditory system
o study pairing tones with shock
pretraining, neuron responds best to 9.5 Hz tone
CS is 9-Hz tone, paired with shock
after training, neuron now responds best to 9-Hz tone, and less to
9.5 Hz
medial division of the medial geniculate nucleus (MGm) - important for
classically conditioned emotional responses
o receives info from auditory and somatosensory systems
o directly connected to the central nucleus of the amygdala
o which activates the nucleus basalis
o nucleus basalis contains acetylcholine neurons which innervate auditory
cortex, telling it to pay particular attention to the ventral division of the
medial geniculate nucleus (conveys auditory information)
S-R LEARNING
1) Classical Conditioning
central nucleus of the amygdala involved in classically-conditioned emotional
responses
see figure 14.29 -MGm eceives auditory and somatosensory info
pairing of tone and footshock increases responses to CS
extinction - somehow, NMDA receptors again involved - most likely due to
long-term depression
2) Instrumental Conditioning and Motor Learning
2 pathways exist between sensory association cortex and motor association
cortex:
1) direct trascortical connections - short-term memory, and with
hippocampus involved in episodic memory
2) via basal ganglia and thalamus - used once no longer "new" learning;
Parkinson's example
5. premotor cortex - monkeys raising arms for food; humans learning motor task
reinforcement:
reinforcing brain stimulation discovered by Olds and Milner in 1954
medial forebrain bundle - best place for self-stimulation; also involved in
natural reinforcers, such as food, water, or sex
dopamine - likely serves as a neuromodulator, involved in reinforcement -
receptors in nucleus accumbens
o conditioned place preference - animals prefer to be where they have
encountered a reinforcing stimulus
o this process used to test influence of dopamine on reinforcement
o if given dopamine antagonist during place training, don’t develop
conditioned place preference
o also involved in negative reinforcement - dopamine antagonists prevent
avoidance learning
o amphetamine is a dopamine agonist - animals will work to get injections
of it
drug discrimination procedure - train animals to press a certain
lever to receive food after it has been given a drug and to press
another lever after it has been given saline
found that rats would press drug lever only if amphetamine put
directly into nucleus accumbens, rather than other brain structure
they pushed the saline lever if they also had been given a
dopamine receptor blocker with the amphetamine into the nucleus
accumbens
REINFORCEMENT SYSTEM
must be able to first detect and then respond to reinforcement opportunities
ventral tegmentum area - reinforcing stimuli activate neurons here, which
they stimulate release of dopamine in other systems
o neurons activated by both natural and conditioned reinforcers
o information received from 3 sites:
1) amygdala - involved in detection of CS for
reinforcement - if monkeys trained that food follows a
visual stimulus, then amygdala lesioned, the monkey
forgets the association
2) lateral hypothalamus - neurons become active when
monkeys see food, but only when hungry - neurons show
sensory-specific satiety; activity related to presence of
reinforcing stimuli
6. 3) prefrontal cortex - secretes excitatory glutamate, which
triggers bursts of dopamine to be released from neurons in
the ventral tegmental area into the nucleus accumbens; may
serve as monitor for reinforcement-seeking activity
a reinforcement system is required by instrumental conditioning
1) discriminative stimulus activates weak synapse
2) circumstance that causes animal to press lever activates a strong
synapse
3) if behavior is reinforced, then neurotransmitter/neuromodulator
released (dopamine), causing synaptic changes, strengthening weak
synapses
DOMAINS OF LEARNINGS
Cognitive Domain
Cognitive Domain - This domain includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This
includes the recall or recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing intellectual abilities and
skills. There are six major categories, starting from the simplest behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex
(Evaluation). The University of Washington's Geography Department website Major Categories in the
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives has a detailed explanation of Bloom's Six Levels of Cognitive
Development (more info)
Affective Domain
Affective Domain- How does one approach learning? With confidence, a can do attitude. The Affective
domain includes feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The University of
Dayton, School of Law Affective Domain website describes each catagory in the domain and provides
illustrative examples and keywords for the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Psychomotor Domain
Psychomotor Domain- The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision,
distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. For a more detailed treatment of this domain see the Penn
State Teaching and Learning with Technology websitePsychomotor Domain Taxonomy (more info)
Connecting Learning and Assessment
To see how assessments are built from these domains of learning and to learn how to
build effective assessments go to the Hallmarks of Effective Assessment page.
Resources
7. Bloom Benjamin S. and David R. Krathwohl. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
Classification of Educational Goals, by a committee of college and university examiners.
Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York, Longmans, Green, 1956.
Ang morpolohiya ay ang sangay ng linggwistika na nag-aaral ng morpema (morpheme) o ang
pinakamaliit na yunit ng tunog na may kahuluguhan. Pinag-aaralan dito ang sistema ng
pagsasalansan ng mga morpema upang makabuo ng salita na may payak o kumplikadong
kahulugan. Ang mga morpema ay maaaring isang buong salita, panlapi, artikulo, o metalinggwistikal
na yunit ng kahulugan tulad ng intonasyon at stress o diin.
Kayarian ng salita
May apat na kayarian ng mga salita. Ito ang mga sumusunod:
1. payak - salitang-ugat
2. maylapi - salitang-ugat at may panlapi
3. inuulit - kapag ang salitang-ugat ay inuulit
4. tambalang-salita - dalawang magkaibang salitang pinagsama upang makabuo ng bagong
kahulugan
Mga halimbawa ng tambalang salita at mga kahulugan nito
1. Taingang-kawali- taong nagbibingi-bingihan
2. Ingat-yaman - tresyurera o tresyurero, tagapag-ingat ng salapi o ari-arian ng isang tao o
organisasyon
3. Matapobre - mapagmataas, malupit, mapangmata sa mga mahihirap
4. Patay-gutom - timawa, palaging gutom, matakaw
5. Hampaslupa - mahirap, pobre, pulubi
6. Akyat-bahay - magnanakaw, mang-uumit sa bahay ng iba
7. Boses-palaka - pangit kumanta, sintunado o wala sa tono
8. Ningas-kugon - sinisimulan ang isang Gawain ngunit hindi tinatapos
9. Nakaw-tingin - pag-sulyap sa isang tao na hindi niya nalalaman
10.Agaw-pansin - madaling makakuha ng pansin o atensiyon, takaw-pansin, agaw-eksena
11.Sirang-plaka - paulit-ulit ang sinasabi
12.Takip-silim - mag-gagabi, pagitan ng hapon at gabi
13.Bukang-liwayway - mag-uumaga, pagitan ng ng umaga at madaling-araw
8. 14.Madaling-araw - pagitan ng hatinggabi at bukang-liwayway
15.Hatinggabi - eksaktong alas dose ng gabi, pagitan ng gabi at madaling-araw
16.Tanghaling-tapat - eksaktong alas dose ng umaga, pagitan ng umaga at hapon
17.Balat-sibuyas - maramdamin, madaling masaktan
18.Likas-yaman - pinagkukunang yaman na nanggagaling sa kalikasan
19.Tubig-alat - tubig na nanggagaling sa dagat o karagatan
20.Tubig-tabang - tubig na nanggagaling sa mga ilog, lawa at ibang maliit na bahagi ng tubig
21.Hanap-buhay - trabahong kailangan ng mga tao.
Ang Morpolohiya at ang Morpema
MORPOLOHIYA
Ang morpolohiya ay ang pag-aaral ng mga morpema ng isang wika at ngpagsasama-sama ng
mga ito upang makabuo ng salita. Anupa’t kung ang ponolohiya ay tungkol sa pag-aaral ng set ng
mga tunog na bumubuo ng mga salita sa isang wika, ang morpolohiya ay ang pag-aaral sa pagbuo
ng mga salita sa pamamagitan ng iba’t ibang morpema.
Katuturan ng Morpema
Galing ang salitang morpema sa katagang morpheme sa Ingles na kinuha naman sa salitang
Griyego – morph (anyo o yunit) + eme (kahulugan). Sa payak na kahulugan, ay ang pinakamaliit na
yunit ng isang salita na nagtataglay ng kahulugan. Ang ibig sabihin ng pinakamaliit na yunit ay
yunit na hindi na maaari pang mahati nang hindi masisira ang kahulugan nito. Ang morpema ay
maaaring isang salitang-ugat o isang panlapi. Ang lahat ng mga morpemang mababanggit ay dapat
na ikulong sa { }.
Ang salitang makahoy, halimbawa ay may dalawang morpema: (1) ang unlaping {ma-} at ang
salitang-ugat na {kahoy}. Taglay ng unlaping {ma-} ang kahulugang “marami ng isinasaad ng
salitang-ugat”. Sa halimbawang salitang makahoy, maaaring masabing ang ibig sabihin nito’y
“maraming kahoy”. Ang salitang ugat na kahoy ay nagtataglay rin ng sariling kahulugan. Ito ay
hindi na mahahati pa sa lalong maliliit na yunit namay kahulugan. Ang ka at hoy, ay mga pantig
9. lamang na walang kahulugan. May pantig na panghalip na ka sa Filipino, gayundin naman ng
pantawag na hoy, ngunit malayo na ang kahulugan ng mga ito sa salitang kahoy.
Samantala, pansinin ang salitang babae, bagamat may tatlo ring pantig na tulad ng mabait, ay
binubuo lamang ng iisang morpema. Hindi na ito mahahati pa sa maliit na yunit o bahagi nang
hindi masisira ang kahulugan. Hindi morpema ang mga sumusunod na maaaring makuha sa babae:
be, e, baba, bae, bab, aba, abab, at ab. Maaaring maibigay tayong kahulugan sa baba at aba
ngunitgaya ng naipaliwanag na, malayo na ang kahulugan ng mga ito sa babae.
Uri ng Morpema
May dalawang uri ng morpema ayon sa kahulugan. Makikita ito sa halimbawang
pangungusap sa ibaba.
Magaling sumayaw si Rik kaya siya ay nanalo sa dance olympic.
1. Mga morpemang may kahulugang leksikal. Ito ang mga morpemang tinatawag ding pangnilalaman
pagkat may kahulugan sa ganang sarili. Ito ay nangangahulugan na ang morpema ay nakakatayo ng
mag-isa sapagkat may angkin siyang kahulugan na hindi na nangangailangan ng iba pang salita.
Halimbawa sa pangungusap sa itaas, ang mga salitang magaling, sumayaw, Rik, siya, nanalo, dance
at olympic ay nakakatayo nang mag-isa dahil nauunawaan kung ano ang kanilang mga kahulugan.
Kabilang sa uring ito ang mga salitang pangngalan, pandiwa, pang-uri at mga pang-abay. Tulad ng
mga sumusunod:
Pangngalan: Rik, dance, olympic, aso, tao, paaralan, kompyuter
Panghalip: siya, kayo, tayo, sila, ako, ikaw, atin, amin, ko, mo
Pandiwa: sumayaw, nanalo, mag-aral, kumakanta, naglinis
Pang-uri: banal, maligaya, palaaway, balat-sibuyas, marami
Pang-abay: magaling, kahapon, kanina, totoong maganda, doon
10. 2. Mga Morpemang may kahulugang pangkayarian. Ito ang mga morpemang walang kahulugan sa
ganang sarili at kailangang makita sa isang kayarian o konteksto upang maging makahulugan. Ito
ang mga salitang nangangailangan ng iba pang mga salita upang mabuo ang kanilang gamit sa
pangungusap. Tulad ng halimbawang pangungusap sa itaas, ang mga salitang si, kaya, ay at sa ay
hindi makikita ang kahulugan at gamit nito sa pangungusap kung wala pang ibang salitang kasama.
Ngunit ang mga salitang ito ay malaking papel na ginagampanan dahil ang mga ito ay
nagpapalinaw sa kahulugan ng pangungusap. Hindi naman maaaring sabihing,Magaling sumayaw
Rik siya nanalo dance olympic. Kasama sa uring ito ang mga sumusunod:
Pang-angkop: na, -ng
Pangatnig: kaya, at, o saka, pati
Pang-ukol: sa, tungkol sa/kay, ayon sa/kay
Pananda: ay, si, ang, ng, sina, ni/nina, kay/kina
Anyo ng Morpema
May tatlong anyo ang morpema. Makikilala ang mga morpemang ito batay sa kanyang anyo
o porma. Ito ay maaaring ayon sa mga sumusunod:
1. Morpemang ponema. Ito ay ang paggamit ng makahulugang tunog o ponema sa Filipino na
nagpapakilala ng gender o kasarian. Oo, isang ponema lamang ang binabanggit ngunit malaking
faktor ito upang mabago ang kahulugan ng isang salita. Halimbawa ng salitang propesor at
propesora. Nakikilala ang pagkakaibang ito sa pamamagitan ng {-a} sa pusisyong pinal ng
ikalawang salita. Ang ponemang /a/ ay makahulugang yunit na nagbibigay ng kahulugang
“kasariang pambabae.” Samakatwid, ito ay isang morpema. Ang salitang propesora ay binubuo ng
dalawang morpema: {propesor} at {-a}. Iba pang halimbawa:
Doktora - {doktor} at {-a}
Senyora - {senyor} at {-a}
Plantsadora - {plantsador} at {-a}
Kargadora - {kargador} at {-a}
11. Senadora - {senador} at {-a}
Ngunit hindi lahat ng mga salitang may inaakalang morpemang {-a} na ikinakabit ay may
morpema na. Tulad ng salitang maestro na naging maestra. Ang mga salitang ito ay binubuo
lamang ng tig-iisang morpema, {maestro} at {maestra}. Ang mga ponemang {-o} at {-a} na ikinakabit
ay hindi mga morpema. Dahil wala naman tayong mga salitang {maestr} at sasabihing morpemang
{-o} at {-a} ang ikinakabit dahil nagpapakilala ng kasariang panlalaki at ganoon din sa pambabae.
Tulad din ng sumusunod na mga salita na may iisang morpema lamang:
bombero - na hindi {bomber} at {-o} o {-a}
kusinero - na hindi {kusiner} at {-o} o {-a}
abugado - na hindi {abugad} at (-o} o {-a}
Lito - na hindi {lit} at {-o} o {-a}
Mario - na hindi {mari} at {-o} at {-a}
2. Morpemang salitang-ugat (su). Ang mga morpemang binubuo ng salitang-ugat ay mga salitang
payak, mga salitang walang panlapi. Tulad nito:
tao silya druga payong jet
pagod tuwa pula liit taas
basa laro aral kain sulat
3. Morpemang Panlapi. Ito ang mga morpemang ikinakabit sa salitang-ugat. Ang mga panlapi ay may
kahulugang taglay, kaya’t bawat isa ay isang morpema. Halimbawa, ang panlaping {um-}/{-um-} ay
may kahulugan “pagganap sa kilos na isinasaad ng salitang-ugat. Sa pandiwang umaawit, ang {um-
} ay nangangahulugang “gawin o ginawa ang kilos ng pag-awit. Tulad ng mga sumusunod:
mag-ina - {mag-} at {ina}
maganda - {ma-} at {ganda}
magbasa - {mag-} at {basa}
12. bumasa - {-um-} at {basa}
aklatan - {-an} at {aklat}
pagsumikapan - {pag-, -um-, -an} at {sikap}