This document summarizes research on human memory encoding and storage. It discusses early studies on memory span and forgetting curves. It then covers the multi-store model of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Key findings on working memory and prefrontal cortex involvement are also presented. The document concludes by discussing concepts of memory activation and accessibility.
This document discusses learning and memory. It defines learning, memory, and the three facets of learning and memory - acquisition, storage, and retrieval. It describes studies on patient HM which showed the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories. It discusses explicit and implicit memory, as well as non-associative and associative learning. It explains synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that are involved in memory formation. It also discusses dementia, with a focus on Alzheimer's disease.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. Memory involves encoding, storing, and later retrieving knowledge about the world. There are two main types of memory: explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (associative, classical, and non-associative). Different forms of learning and memory involve different brain regions. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus is important for declarative memory formation and involves strengthening of synapses through high-frequency stimulation and calcium-dependent processes.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves assembling information from the senses. Consolidation converts encoded information into a permanent form stored in the hippocampus and surrounding areas. Retrieval allows accessing stored memories. Learning refers to long-lasting behavior changes from practice or repetition and includes non-associative learning like habituation and associative learning like classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning associates a stimulus with a response while operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to modify behaviors. Studies in Aplysia show how sensitization and habituation produce long-term changes in synaptic connections related to learning. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus involves strengthening synapses and is important for spatial memory.
This document provides an overview of the visual system, including:
1. Basic principles of optics such as refraction and focal points.
2. Anatomy and function of the eye, including accommodation, refractive errors, and intraocular structures.
3. Processing of visual information through the retina, including phototransduction and ganglion cell types.
4. Visual pathways from the retina through the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex.
This document discusses the biological basis of memory. It covers topics like the definition of memory, different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term, working), memory processes (encoding, storage, retrieval), neuroplasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation, molecular basis of memory formation, brain structures involved in memory like the hippocampus and amnesia. It provides historical context on pioneering figures who studied memory and describes classical experiments that advanced the understanding of the neurological underpinnings of memory.
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
This document discusses learning and memory. It defines learning, memory, and the three facets of learning and memory - acquisition, storage, and retrieval. It describes studies on patient HM which showed the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories. It discusses explicit and implicit memory, as well as non-associative and associative learning. It explains synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that are involved in memory formation. It also discusses dementia, with a focus on Alzheimer's disease.
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience. Memory involves encoding, storing, and later retrieving knowledge about the world. There are two main types of memory: explicit (episodic and semantic) and implicit (associative, classical, and non-associative). Different forms of learning and memory involve different brain regions. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus is important for declarative memory formation and involves strengthening of synapses through high-frequency stimulation and calcium-dependent processes.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves assembling information from the senses. Consolidation converts encoded information into a permanent form stored in the hippocampus and surrounding areas. Retrieval allows accessing stored memories. Learning refers to long-lasting behavior changes from practice or repetition and includes non-associative learning like habituation and associative learning like classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning associates a stimulus with a response while operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to modify behaviors. Studies in Aplysia show how sensitization and habituation produce long-term changes in synaptic connections related to learning. Long-term potentiation in the hippocampus involves strengthening synapses and is important for spatial memory.
This document provides an overview of the visual system, including:
1. Basic principles of optics such as refraction and focal points.
2. Anatomy and function of the eye, including accommodation, refractive errors, and intraocular structures.
3. Processing of visual information through the retina, including phototransduction and ganglion cell types.
4. Visual pathways from the retina through the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex.
This document discusses the biological basis of memory. It covers topics like the definition of memory, different types of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term, working), memory processes (encoding, storage, retrieval), neuroplasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation, molecular basis of memory formation, brain structures involved in memory like the hippocampus and amnesia. It provides historical context on pioneering figures who studied memory and describes classical experiments that advanced the understanding of the neurological underpinnings of memory.
Understanding the encoding of memory and its retrieval is a complex task. The neurobiological correlates of memory have been summarised in this presentation for easy understanding of students.
This document summarizes key concepts from a psychology unit on memory, including:
1. Long-term memories have an unlimited capacity and are stored across interconnected brain networks rather than single locations. The hippocampus organizes new memories and stores them in various brain centers.
2. The frontal lobes support working memory while the hippocampus processes explicit memories by consolidating short-term memories into long-term storage during sleep. Damage to the hippocampus impairs new explicit memory formation.
3. The cerebellum and basal ganglia support implicit memory and automatic processing through classical conditioning and procedural memory formation. Damage to the cerebellum inhibits new habit formation.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, including procedural and declarative memory systems, and models like Aplysia and cerebellum that are used to study these mechanisms at the neuronal and molecular level. It discusses various forms of learning like habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning; and memory mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that involve modification of synaptic strength through molecular cascades and changes in gene expression.
There are two types of long-term memory: declarative and non-declarative. Declarative memory involves consciously recalling facts and experiences, including episodic and semantic memory. Non-declarative memory deals with skills and procedures rather than facts. Three systems in the brain are involved in long-term memory storage: the cerebellum and striatum for implicit memories, the amygdala for emotional memories, and the hippocampus for consciously recalled episodic and semantic memories. After initial processing, memories are stored in the cortical association areas.
Memory involves the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning. For memories to form, learning causes persistent changes in brain structure and function. The parts of the brain involved in memory include the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, limbic system structures like the hippocampus and amygdala, and the diencephalon. Different types of memory include immediate memory for recent experiences, procedural memory for skills, short-term memory for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stored from days to years. Memory formation results from changes in neurons and synaptic connections in networks across the brain.
This document discusses physiology of memory and learning. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience, while memory is the ability to recall past events. There are two main types of learning - associative and non-associative. Associative learning involves associating stimuli, like in classical and operant conditioning. Non-associative learning does not require association of stimuli, and includes habituation and sensitization. Memory is classified into sensory, short-term, long-term and permanent memory based on duration. The hippocampus and surrounding areas are involved in consolidating memories by converting them from short-term to long-term storage through long-term potentiation.
Chapter 13: The Biology of Learning & MemoryAlex Holub
The document discusses several topics related to biology of learning and memory including:
1. Classical and operant conditioning and how they relate to forming memories through reinforcement and punishment.
2. Theories of localized representations of memory in the brain and types of both short-term and long-term memory.
3. Diseases and disorders that cause memory loss such as amnesia, Korsakoff's syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease.
4. Cellular mechanisms in the brain that support information storage, including Hebbian synapses, habituation, sensitization, and long-term potentiation/depression.
The document summarizes research on learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It discusses classical and operant conditioning experiments by Pavlov and others. It describes studies showing memory is not localized to specific brain areas, and the hippocampus is important for forming new long-term memories. Different types of amnesia result from damage to different brain regions like the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and other physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie learning and memory at the synaptic level.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting strengthening of synapses based on timing of neural activity. It is believed to be the cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory. LTP occurs when presynaptic activation repeatedly followed by postsynaptic spiking. This coincident activity causes calcium influx and initiates changes that strengthen synaptic connections. [END SUMMARY]
Cerebral Cortex, Intellectual Functions of the Brain, Learning, and Memory.Dipti Magan
The document describes the cerebral cortex, intellectual functions of the brain, and learning and memory. It discusses topics like memory types and classification, brain regions involved in memory processing and storage, synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that underlie learning and memory, and pathways involved in communication functions of the brain. The objectives are to describe memory forms, identify brain parts related to memory, and define synaptic plasticity mechanisms and their roles in learning and memory.
Explain how biological factors may affect one Cognitive process.Michelle Silva
The hippocampus plays an important role in forming explicit memories, as damage to the hippocampus results in an inability to form new explicit memories. However, implicit memories can still be formed. The amygdala is involved in storing emotional memories, as these types of memories are remembered better and are difficult to forget in disorders like PTSD. The case of Clive Wearing showed damage specifically to his hippocampus, resulting in severe anterograde amnesia. However, his procedural and emotional memories remained intact, as evidenced by his ability to play piano and have strong emotional responses, showing memory is distributed across brain regions beyond just the hippocampus.
Neuropsychology studies how the brain influences cognition and behavior. It aims to understand how brain function impacts learning, memory, and disorders. Learning is the acquisition of skills or knowledge through a generally slow process, while memory is the retention and expression of what has been learned through a faster process. Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval, and can be impaired through brain damage or amnesia. Imaging techniques like PET and MRI help study memory and brain structures involved like the hippocampus and temporal lobes. Animal models also provide insights into specific memory systems and their brain regions.
This document discusses learning and memory. It defines learning as the ability to alter behavior based on experience, and memory as the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of sensory information. It describes different types of learning, including reflex learning (non-associative and associative) and incidental learning. It also describes different types of memory based on how information is stored and recalled, such as implicit, explicit, short-term, and long-term memory. The document provides details on classical and operant conditioning experiments and the physiological mechanisms involved in learning, memory formation, consolidation and retrieval, including long-term potentiation.
Conditioning is a learned response to a stimulus that previously elicited little response. There are two types of conditioning: classical and instrumental. Learning is the ability to change behavior through experience, while memory is the ability to store and recall information. Memory involves short-term and long-term storage, and is essential for learning. Conditions like head trauma, seizures, or Alzheimer's disease can interfere with memory consolidation.
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and reorganize itself in response to experience. The brain forms new connections and pathways when we learn new skills or have new experiences. Neuroplasticity allows the brain to compensate for injury and disease and is responsible for development throughout childhood. Promising therapies that may enhance neuroplasticity include brain stimulation, cognitive training, and certain drugs. Assessing neuroplasticity in humans through biomarkers can help predict treatment response and monitor recovery. Harnessing neuroplasticity is key for rehabilitation from brain injuries and disorders.
This document provides an overview of sleep, its stages, circadian rhythms, and relationship to anesthesia. It defines sleep and describes its typical stages: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep including stages 1-3, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep involves slow brain waves and restoration, while REM involves dreaming and autonomic instability. Circadian rhythms regulate daily cycles of activity and rest and are generated by biological clocks in cells. Perioperative sleep deprivation and sleep disorders like sleep apnea can impact patient outcomes, making sleep important for anesthesia.
This document discusses speech physiology and the centers involved in speech production and comprehension. It covers topics like:
- The dominant and non-dominant hemispheres and their roles
- Brain areas involved in speech like Wernicke's area, Broca's area, and their functions
- Types of aphasia that can result from lesions to different speech areas
- The mechanism of speech production and comprehension involving various brain areas
- Other topics on neglect, dysarthria, and the lateralization of brain functions are also summarized.
Morphology of Human Deciduous Maxillary Lateral Incisor ToothRooban Thavarajah
Dr. Rooban Thavarajah gave a lecture series on tooth morphology focusing on the deciduous dentition and features of the maxillary lateral incisor. The maxillary lateral incisor is smaller than the central incisor with its crown wider from front to back than side to side. It has more rounded incisal angles, prominent ridges on the inside surface, a deeper pit, and a longer root with a less rounded tip compared to the central incisor.
The document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the frontal lobes, including the motor cortex, premotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and their connections. It also examines frontal lobe circuits and the neurotransmitters that project to the frontal lobes. Common frontal lobe syndromes and deficits associated with lesions to different frontal areas are described.
This document summarizes key concepts from a psychology unit on memory, including:
1. Long-term memories have an unlimited capacity and are stored across interconnected brain networks rather than single locations. The hippocampus organizes new memories and stores them in various brain centers.
2. The frontal lobes support working memory while the hippocampus processes explicit memories by consolidating short-term memories into long-term storage during sleep. Damage to the hippocampus impairs new explicit memory formation.
3. The cerebellum and basal ganglia support implicit memory and automatic processing through classical conditioning and procedural memory formation. Damage to the cerebellum inhibits new habit formation.
This document summarizes molecular mechanisms of learning and memory, including procedural and declarative memory systems, and models like Aplysia and cerebellum that are used to study these mechanisms at the neuronal and molecular level. It discusses various forms of learning like habituation, sensitization, and classical conditioning; and memory mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that involve modification of synaptic strength through molecular cascades and changes in gene expression.
There are two types of long-term memory: declarative and non-declarative. Declarative memory involves consciously recalling facts and experiences, including episodic and semantic memory. Non-declarative memory deals with skills and procedures rather than facts. Three systems in the brain are involved in long-term memory storage: the cerebellum and striatum for implicit memories, the amygdala for emotional memories, and the hippocampus for consciously recalled episodic and semantic memories. After initial processing, memories are stored in the cortical association areas.
Memory involves the storage and retrieval of information acquired through learning. For memories to form, learning causes persistent changes in brain structure and function. The parts of the brain involved in memory include the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, limbic system structures like the hippocampus and amygdala, and the diencephalon. Different types of memory include immediate memory for recent experiences, procedural memory for skills, short-term memory for seconds to minutes, and long-term memory stored from days to years. Memory formation results from changes in neurons and synaptic connections in networks across the brain.
This document discusses physiology of memory and learning. It defines learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience, while memory is the ability to recall past events. There are two main types of learning - associative and non-associative. Associative learning involves associating stimuli, like in classical and operant conditioning. Non-associative learning does not require association of stimuli, and includes habituation and sensitization. Memory is classified into sensory, short-term, long-term and permanent memory based on duration. The hippocampus and surrounding areas are involved in consolidating memories by converting them from short-term to long-term storage through long-term potentiation.
Chapter 13: The Biology of Learning & MemoryAlex Holub
The document discusses several topics related to biology of learning and memory including:
1. Classical and operant conditioning and how they relate to forming memories through reinforcement and punishment.
2. Theories of localized representations of memory in the brain and types of both short-term and long-term memory.
3. Diseases and disorders that cause memory loss such as amnesia, Korsakoff's syndrome, and Alzheimer's disease.
4. Cellular mechanisms in the brain that support information storage, including Hebbian synapses, habituation, sensitization, and long-term potentiation/depression.
The document summarizes research on learning, memory, amnesia, and brain functioning. It discusses classical and operant conditioning experiments by Pavlov and others. It describes studies showing memory is not localized to specific brain areas, and the hippocampus is important for forming new long-term memories. Different types of amnesia result from damage to different brain regions like the hippocampus or prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and other physiological mechanisms are thought to underlie learning and memory at the synaptic level.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting strengthening of synapses based on timing of neural activity. It is believed to be the cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory. LTP occurs when presynaptic activation repeatedly followed by postsynaptic spiking. This coincident activity causes calcium influx and initiates changes that strengthen synaptic connections. [END SUMMARY]
Cerebral Cortex, Intellectual Functions of the Brain, Learning, and Memory.Dipti Magan
The document describes the cerebral cortex, intellectual functions of the brain, and learning and memory. It discusses topics like memory types and classification, brain regions involved in memory processing and storage, synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation and long-term depression that underlie learning and memory, and pathways involved in communication functions of the brain. The objectives are to describe memory forms, identify brain parts related to memory, and define synaptic plasticity mechanisms and their roles in learning and memory.
Explain how biological factors may affect one Cognitive process.Michelle Silva
The hippocampus plays an important role in forming explicit memories, as damage to the hippocampus results in an inability to form new explicit memories. However, implicit memories can still be formed. The amygdala is involved in storing emotional memories, as these types of memories are remembered better and are difficult to forget in disorders like PTSD. The case of Clive Wearing showed damage specifically to his hippocampus, resulting in severe anterograde amnesia. However, his procedural and emotional memories remained intact, as evidenced by his ability to play piano and have strong emotional responses, showing memory is distributed across brain regions beyond just the hippocampus.
Neuropsychology studies how the brain influences cognition and behavior. It aims to understand how brain function impacts learning, memory, and disorders. Learning is the acquisition of skills or knowledge through a generally slow process, while memory is the retention and expression of what has been learned through a faster process. Memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval, and can be impaired through brain damage or amnesia. Imaging techniques like PET and MRI help study memory and brain structures involved like the hippocampus and temporal lobes. Animal models also provide insights into specific memory systems and their brain regions.
This document discusses learning and memory. It defines learning as the ability to alter behavior based on experience, and memory as the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of sensory information. It describes different types of learning, including reflex learning (non-associative and associative) and incidental learning. It also describes different types of memory based on how information is stored and recalled, such as implicit, explicit, short-term, and long-term memory. The document provides details on classical and operant conditioning experiments and the physiological mechanisms involved in learning, memory formation, consolidation and retrieval, including long-term potentiation.
Conditioning is a learned response to a stimulus that previously elicited little response. There are two types of conditioning: classical and instrumental. Learning is the ability to change behavior through experience, while memory is the ability to store and recall information. Memory involves short-term and long-term storage, and is essential for learning. Conditions like head trauma, seizures, or Alzheimer's disease can interfere with memory consolidation.
Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to change and reorganize itself in response to experience. The brain forms new connections and pathways when we learn new skills or have new experiences. Neuroplasticity allows the brain to compensate for injury and disease and is responsible for development throughout childhood. Promising therapies that may enhance neuroplasticity include brain stimulation, cognitive training, and certain drugs. Assessing neuroplasticity in humans through biomarkers can help predict treatment response and monitor recovery. Harnessing neuroplasticity is key for rehabilitation from brain injuries and disorders.
This document provides an overview of sleep, its stages, circadian rhythms, and relationship to anesthesia. It defines sleep and describes its typical stages: non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep including stages 1-3, and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep involves slow brain waves and restoration, while REM involves dreaming and autonomic instability. Circadian rhythms regulate daily cycles of activity and rest and are generated by biological clocks in cells. Perioperative sleep deprivation and sleep disorders like sleep apnea can impact patient outcomes, making sleep important for anesthesia.
This document discusses speech physiology and the centers involved in speech production and comprehension. It covers topics like:
- The dominant and non-dominant hemispheres and their roles
- Brain areas involved in speech like Wernicke's area, Broca's area, and their functions
- Types of aphasia that can result from lesions to different speech areas
- The mechanism of speech production and comprehension involving various brain areas
- Other topics on neglect, dysarthria, and the lateralization of brain functions are also summarized.
Morphology of Human Deciduous Maxillary Lateral Incisor ToothRooban Thavarajah
Dr. Rooban Thavarajah gave a lecture series on tooth morphology focusing on the deciduous dentition and features of the maxillary lateral incisor. The maxillary lateral incisor is smaller than the central incisor with its crown wider from front to back than side to side. It has more rounded incisal angles, prominent ridges on the inside surface, a deeper pit, and a longer root with a less rounded tip compared to the central incisor.
The document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the frontal lobes, including the motor cortex, premotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and their connections. It also examines frontal lobe circuits and the neurotransmitters that project to the frontal lobes. Common frontal lobe syndromes and deficits associated with lesions to different frontal areas are described.
This document discusses learning, memory, and higher brain functions. It covers topics like reflex learning, associative learning through classical and operant conditioning, different types of memory including implicit, explicit, semantic and episodic memory. It discusses the mechanisms of memory formation, consolidation and retrieval. It also covers higher intellectual functions of the prefrontal cortex and disorders of memory like amnesia and Alzheimer's disease.
Morphology of Human Deciduous Mandibular Molar teethRooban Thavarajah
This document describes the features of the mandibular first and second molars. It notes that the mandibular first molar has no resemblance to any other teeth and is primitive in appearance. It has a rhomboidal occlusal shape with prominent cusps and grooves. The roots are two broad, flat roots that bifurcate. The mandibular second molar is similar to the first permanent molar but smaller, with five cusps and separating grooves between the buccal and lingual cusps. Both teeth have roots that are twice as long as the crowns and flared endings.
The document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the frontal lobes, including the motor cortex, premotor cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and their connections. It also examines frontal lobe circuits and the neurotransmitters that project to the frontal lobes. Common frontal lobe syndromes and deficits associated with lesions to different frontal areas are described.
This document provides an overview of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), including its history, mechanisms, procedures, indications, and controversies. It discusses how ECT was developed from early seizure therapies and first applied using electricity in the 1930s. It also describes how ECT works, involving inducing seizures through electrical stimulation of the brain, and summarizes some of the leading theories about its therapeutic mechanisms. The document outlines the typical ECT procedure and treatment course, including electrical parameter settings and monitoring techniques used. It notes some potential side effects and provides guidelines on patient selection and risk-benefit assessment for ECT.
The document discusses neurobiology of memory, including:
1. It describes the anatomical and functional organization of memory, focusing on the hippocampus formation, its afferents and efferents, and its role in learning and memory.
2. It discusses the different types of memory including explicit and implicit memory, and the cellular and molecular processes underlying short-term and long-term memory formation.
3. It explains mechanisms of memory formation and consolidation at the synaptic level, including the roles of proteins like CaMKII and CREB.
This document summarizes research on neurology and memory systems. It discusses different types of memory including conditioning, habituation, sensitization, working memory, and long-term memory. It describes the brain systems involved in these memory processes, including the hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, frontal lobe, and temporal lobe. It also discusses the role of long-term potentiation and protein synthesis in forming long-term memories.
The document summarizes the neurobiology of memory. It discusses the different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It then covers the neuroanatomy of structures involved in memory like the hippocampus, amygdala, and prefrontal cortex. It also discusses neurophysiological processes underlying memory formation including long-term potentiation and long-term depression in the hippocampus.
The document discusses physiology of memory and emotions, and the limbic system. It describes how memory involves processes of registration, retention, and retrieval. There are different types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Emotions are mental reactions that are subjectively experienced and accompanied by physiological and behavioral changes. The limbic system, including the hippocampus and amygdala, are brain areas responsible for memory and processing emotions.
The document discusses several topics related to higher functions of the nervous system including language, speech pathways, memory types, learning, and memory disorders. It describes how language allows expression of thoughts through sounds and how the speech pathway works. It also summarizes the types of memory as declarative and nondeclarative, and explains short-term versus long-term memory and memory consolidation processes in the brain.
The document discusses learning and memory. It defines different types of memory including working memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. It describes classical and operant conditioning. The stages of memory storage and types of amnesia are outlined. Biochemical processes involved in memory storage like long-term potentiation are explained. Alzheimer's disease is characterized by amyloid plaque buildup in the brain leading to neuronal loss and deterioration of memory and other cognitive abilities.
our report in BioPsych.. this ppt is incomplete since the first part of the topic was not included here.
i have uploaded our documents and presentations because i don't want to have it deleted.. these files can still be usefull to me and to others. i hope this can help..
book: BioPsych
author: J.P. Pinel
Introduction to neuroscience presentation on memory and learningAlexisRobles37
The document discusses memory, learning, and the brain structures involved. It covers:
- The hippocampus is central to declarative memory formation and transferring memories from short-term to long-term memory. Damage results in anterograde amnesia.
- Patient H.M.'s case showed the hippocampus is critical for forming new memories after its removal, causing anterograde amnesia.
- Structures like the amygdala and ventral striatum are also involved in emotional memory formation and reward conditioning.
- Synaptic plasticity mechanisms like long-term potentiation in the hippocampus are thought to underlie memory formation and storage at the cellular level.
This document summarizes different types of memory. It describes short-term memory which lasts seconds to minutes, intermediate long-term memory which lasts days to weeks, and long-term memory which can last years. The mechanisms of each are explained, such as synaptic facilitation and structural changes involved in long-term memory formation. Learning is defined as the acquisition of knowledge through experience and instruction, and rewards/punishments are believed to be involved in many types of learning.
The document discusses physiology of learning and the brain. It covers several topics:
- Parts of the brain and their functions, including the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, and cerebellum.
- Types of memory including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
- Theories of memory storage including engrams and long-term potentiation.
- Physiology of memory including types of amnesia and the role of the hippocampus.
- Memory and learning, including theories like Hebbian learning and mechanisms like long-term potentiation.
The document discusses learning, memory, and amnesia by examining several case studies and research findings. It summarizes the case of patient H.M., who developed severe anterograde amnesia after temporal lobe removal. Studies on H.M. showed that the medial temporal lobes are involved in memory formation and that short-term and long-term memory are separate. The document also discusses other forms of amnesia and their neural bases, such as Korsakoff's syndrome, Alzheimer's disease, and post-traumatic amnesia. It examines the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation and object recognition. Memory is thought to be stored diffusely throughout the brain in the structures involved in initial encoding
The document discusses memory formation and the neurological mechanisms underlying it. It describes how memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of information, and involves both short-term and long-term memory. Key areas of the brain involved in memory formation include the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebral cortex. Memory formation occurs through processes like long-term potentiation that strengthen synaptic connections. Various neurotransmitters and proteins play important roles as well.
Memory involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding involves assembling information from the senses. Consolidation converts encoded information into a permanent form stored in the hippocampus and surrounding areas. Retrieval allows accessing stored memories. Learning refers to long-lasting behavior changes from practice or repetition and includes associative learning like classical and operant conditioning as well as observational learning. Studies in Aplysia show how sensitization and habituation produce long-term synaptic changes through mechanisms like presynaptic facilitation and CREB activation. Long-term potentiation in hippocampus involves strengthening synapses through NMDA receptor activation and protein synthesis.
This document summarizes key concepts regarding physiology of memory and learning. It defines different types of memory including short-term memory, long-term memory, explicit memory, implicit memory, and different memory systems in the brain. It also discusses different stages of memory processing and the anatomical basis of memory, including the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala and different pathways. Long-term potentiation and its properties and role in memory formation are described. Different types of learning like classical conditioning, operant conditioning and various forms of implicit learning are also summarized.
This document discusses how memories are formed and stored in the brain. It explains that memories are formed through synaptic plasticity, which refers to changes in the strength of connections between neurons. These connections are made stronger or weaker based on past activation patterns. Three key areas involved in memory are the hippocampus, which forms episodic memories; the amygdala, which attaches emotional significance; and the neocortex, where memories may be consolidated over time. Different memory systems rely on different brain regions, such as the basal ganglia and cerebellum for implicit memories, and the prefrontal cortex for working memory. The document also outlines how occupational therapists assess memory through standardized tests and occupation-based evaluations.
Memory is the ability to encode, store, retain and recall information and past experiences. It involves a three step process of encoding, storage and retrieval. There are different types of memory including sensory memory, short term memory and long term memory. Memory is understood through various models and is subject to forgetting over time due to factors like trace decay, displacement and interference.
1. Memory involves multiple brain structures working together, including the hippocampus, medial temporal lobe, striatum, thalamus, and neocortex.
2. Visual information is first processed in the visual cortex, then held in short-term memory in the frontal lobes.
3. The hippocampus stores new information from short-term memory for weeks or months before transferring it to the cerebral cortex for long-term storage.
4. Recalling long-term memories routes information from the cerebral cortex back to the frontal lobes for temporary storage in working memory.
screening models for Nootropics and models for Alzheimer's diseaseAswin Palanisamy
Preclinical and screening model for Nootropics, and models for Alzheimer's disease, in the detailed view, in vivo and in vitro models with neat pictures for easy understanding. for m.pharm students.
Memory and Learning in neurosciece.pptxNareshBehera7
Learning involves changes in the nervous system and brain that are caused by experience and allow us to change our behavior. There are four main types of learning: perceptual learning, associative/S-R learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Memory involves storing information over time in both explicit and implicit forms through various brain regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Long-term potentiation and synaptic plasticity are thought to be key mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation at the neuronal level.
Learning involves changes in the nervous system and brain that are caused by experience and allow us to change our behavior. There are four main types of learning: perceptual learning, associative/S-R learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Key theories of learning and memory include Hebbian theory of synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation, as well as classical and operant conditioning developed by Pavlov and Skinner. The hippocampus and surrounding medial temporal lobe structures are critical for forming new declarative memories and engaging in relational learning.
The document discusses learning and memory in neuroscience. It covers four basic forms of learning: perceptual learning, associative (S-R) learning, motor learning, and relational learning. Perceptual learning involves strengthening neural connections to recognize stimuli. S-R learning associates stimuli with responses through classical and operant conditioning. Relational learning requires the hippocampus for forming new memories, as seen in patient H.M. who had anterograde amnesia after hippocampal damage. Memory involves different systems like short-term and long-term memory, which can be declarative or nondeclarative.
This document provides an agenda and background information for a seminar on amnesia. It discusses various types of amnesia including transient amnesic syndromes, persistent amnesic disorders, and organic amnesia. It describes different causes of amnesia including thiamine deficiency, head injuries, seizures, infections like herpes simplex virus, and surgical procedures. It compares classifications of amnesia in DSM-IV and DSM-5. References are also provided.
This document provides a summary of childhood anxiety disorders, including:
- Selective mutism, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, and generalized anxiety disorder.
- It discusses the classification, etiology, signs and symptoms, and treatment options for each disorder.
- Cognitive behavioral therapy and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are commonly used to treat childhood anxiety disorders.
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This document discusses anxiety disorders and their treatment. It defines anxiety and describes common symptoms. Several types of anxiety disorders are outlined, including generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, and phobic disorders. The document then discusses the classification, diagnostic criteria, epidemiology, and treatment options for each disorder type. Treatment involves psychotherapy, medications like SSRIs, benzodiazepines, beta-blockers, and other drug classes. Side effects and considerations for each treatment approach are also reviewed.
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Memory - Form and function
1. Chairperson
Dr. T. Kumanan MD., DPM, Professor
Dr. S. J. X. Sugadev MD., Assistant Professor
Slide 1
Presented by
Dr. A. M. Anusa
First Year PG
Prepared by
Prof. Rooban T,
Oral & Maxillofacial Pathologist
2. Origin of word from
Greek God - Mnemosyne
Slide 2
3. Neurobiology of memory
Identifying where and how different types of
information are stored
Hypothesis by Hebb
Memory results from synaptic alterations
Study of simple invertebrates
Synaptic alterations underlie memories
(procedural)
Electrical stimulation of brain
Experimentally produce measurable synaptic
alterations - dissect mechanisms
Slide 3
4. Declarative and procedural
memories
Nonassociative Learning
Habituation
▪ Learning to ignore
stimulus that lacks
meaning
Sensitization
▪ Learning to intensify
response to stimuli
Slide 4
6. Associative Learning (Cont’d)
Classical Conditioning
▪ Associates a stimulus that evokes response-
unconditional stimulus with second stimulus that
does not evoke response- conditional stimulus
Instrumental Conditioning
▪ Experiment by Edward Thorndike
▪ Complex neural circuits due to motivation
Slide 6
7. Experimental advantages in using
invertebrate nervous systems
Small nervous systems
Large neurons
Identifiable neurons
Identifiable circuits
Simple genetics
Slide 7
12. The molecular basis for classical
conditioning in Aplysia
Slide 12
13. Neural basis of memory learned from
invertebrate studies
Learning and memory can result from
modifications of synaptic transmission
Synaptic modifications can be triggered by
conversion of neural activity into intracellular
second messengers
Memories can result from alterations in
existing synaptic proteins
Slide 13
14. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Cerebellum: Important site for motor learning
Anatomy of the Cerebellar Cortex
▪ Features of Purkinje cells
▪ Dendrites extend only into molecular layer
▪ Cell axons synapse on deep cerebellar nuclei neurons
▪ GABA as a neurotransmitter
Slide 14
16. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
Slide 16
17. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
▪ Cerebellar LTD and Classical Conditioning in Aplysia
▪ Similarity: Input-specific synaptic modification
▪ Dissimilarity: Site of convergence and nature of synaptic
changes
Slide 17
18. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of cerebellar LTD
▪ Learning
▪ Rise in [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i and the activation of protein
kinase C
▪ Memory
▪ Internalized AMPA channels and depressed excitatory
postsynaptic currents
Slide 18
19. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
LTP and LTD
▪ Key to forming declarative memories in the brain
Bliss and Lomo
▪ High frequency electrical stimulation of excitatory
pathway
Anatomy of Hippocampus
▪ Brain slice preparation: Study of LTD and LTP
Slide 19
20. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Anatomy of the Hippocampus
Slide 20
21. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Properties of LTP in CA1
Slide 21
22. Synaptic Plasticity in
the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of LTP in
CA1
▪ Glutamate receptors
mediate excitatory
synaptic transmission
▪ NMDARs and AMPARs
Slide 22
23. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
Long-Term Depression in CA1
Slide 23
24. Synaptic Plasticity in the
Hippocampus (Cont’d)
BCM theory
▪ When the postsynaptic cell
is weakly depolarized by
other inputs: Active
synapses undergo LTD
instead of LTP
▪ Accounts for bidirectional
synaptic changes (up or
down)
Slide 24
25. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking
▪ Stable synaptic transmission: AMPA receptors are
replaced maintaining the same number
▪ LTD and LTP disrupt equilibrium
▪ Bidirectional regulation of phosphorylation
Slide 25
28. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus (Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Memory
▪ Tonegawa, Silva, and colleagues
▪ Genetic “knockout” mice
▪ Consequences of genetic deletions (e.g., CaMK11
subunit)
▪ Advances (temporal and spatial control)
▪ Limitations of using genetic mutants to study
LTP/learning: secondary consequences
Slide 28
29. Phosphorylation as a long term
mechanism: Problematic
(transient and turnover rates)
Persistently Active Protein Kinases
Phosphorylation maintained:
Kinases stay “on”
▪ CaMKII and LTP
▪ Molecular switch hypothesis
Slide 29
30. Protein Synthesis
Requirement of long-term memory
▪ Synthesis of new protein
Protein Synthesis and Memory Consolidation
▪ Protein synthesis inhibitors
▪ Deficits in learning and memory
CREB and Memory
▪ CREB: Cyclic AMP response element binding protein
Slide 30
31. Protein Synthesis (Cont’d)
Structural Plasticity and Memory
▪ Long-term memory associated with formation of
new synapses
▪ Rat in complex environment: Shows increase in
number of neuron synapses by about 25%
Slide 31
32. Learning and memory
Occur at synapses
Unique features of Ca2+
Critical for neurotransmitter secretion and
muscle contraction, every form of synaptic
plasticity
Charge-carrying ion plus a potent second
messenger
▪ Can couple electrical activity with long-term changes
in brain
Slide 32
34. Chapter 6 – Human Memory:
Encoding and Storage
35. First rigorous investigation of human
memory – 1885.
Taught himself nonsense syllables
DAX, BUP, LOC
Savings – the amount of time needed to
relearn a list after it has already been
learned and forgotten.
Forgetting function – most forgetting
takes place right away.
36. Atkinson & Shiffrin – proposed a three-
stage model including:
Sensory store – if attended goes to STM
Short-term memory (STM) – if rehearsed goes
to LTM
Long-term memory (LTM)
No longer the current view of memory.
Still presented in some books.
39. Holds info when it first comes in.
Allows a person to extract meaning from
an image or series of sounds.
Sperling’s partial report procedure:
A display of three rows of letters is presented.
After it is taken away, a tone signals which
row to report.
Subjects were able to report most letters.
42. Iconic memory – visual
Bright postexposure field wipes out memory
after 1 sec, dark after 5 sec.
Echoic memory – auditory
Lasts up to 10 sec (measured by ERP)
Located in the sensory cortexes.
43. The original idea is that when info in
sensory memory is paid attention to,
it moves into short term memory.
With rehearsal, it then moves into
long term memory.
STM has limited capacity, called
memory span.
Miller’s magic number (7 ± 2)
New info pushes out older info (Shepard)
45. Rate of forgetting seemed to be quicker
than Ebbinghaus’s data, but is not really.
Amount of rehearsal appeared to be
related to transfer to long-term memory.
Later it was found that the kind of rehearsal
matters, not the amount.
Passive rehearsal does little to achieve long-
term memory.
Information may go directly to LTM.
46. Craik & Lockhart – proposed that it is not
how long material is rehearsed but the
depth of processing that matters.
Levels of processing demo.
47. Baddeley – in working memory speed of
rehearsal determines memory span.
Articulatory loop – stores whatever can be
processed in a given amount of time.
Word length effect: 4.5 one-syllable words
remembered compared to 2.6 long ones.
1.5 to 2 seconds material can be kept.
Visuopatial sketchpad – rehearses images.
Central executive – controls other systems.
48.
49. Delayed Matching to Sample – monkey
must recall where food was placed.
Monkeys with lesion to frontal cortex cannot
remember food location.
Human infants can’t do it until 1 year old.
Regions of frontal cortex fire only during
the delay – keeping location in mind.
Different prefrontal regions are used to
remember different kinds of information.
50.
51. In primates, working memory is localized
to the frontal cortex.
Delayed matching to sample task:
Monkeys are shown food that is then hidden.
Later they are given a chance to locate it.
Monkeys with frontal lobe lesions cannot
do this task.
52. Activation – how available information is
to memory:
Probability of access – how likely you are to
remember something.
Rate of access – how fast something can be
remembered.
From moment to moment, items differ in
their degree of activation in memory.
53. ACT – Adaptive Control of Thought
Moses Effect -- subjects shown the
words Bible, animal and flood should
recall Noah but recall Moses instead.
When given the word flood they think of
Mississippi or Johnstown but not Noah.
Why? Recall is based on both baseline
and activation from associated
concepts.
Moses and Jesus have higher baselines.
54.
55. How recently we have used the memory:
Loftus – manipulated amount of delay
1.53 sec first time, then 1.21, 1.28, and 1.33
with 3 items intervening.
How much we have practiced the memory
– how frequently it is used.
Anderson’s study (sailor is in the park)
56. Activation spreads along the paths of a
propositional network.
Related items are faster to recall.
Associative priming – involuntary spread
of activation to associated items in
memory.
Kaplan’s dissertation – cues to solving riddles
hidden in the environment led to faster
solutions.
57. Meyer & Schvaneveldt – spreading
activation affects how quickly words are
read.
Subjects judged whether pairs of related &
unrelated items were words.
Judgments about related words were faster.
58.
59. The amount of spreading activation
depends on the strength of a memory.
Memory strength increases with practice.
Greater memory strength increases the
likelihood of recall.
60. Each time we use a memory trace, it
gradually becomes a little stronger.
Power law of learning:
T = 1.40 P-0.24
T is recognition time, P is days of practice.
Linear when plotted on log-log scale.
61.
62.
63. Neural changes may occur with practice:
Long-term potentiation (LTP) in
hippocampus.
Repeated electrical stimulation of neurons
leads to increased sensitivity.
LTP changes are a power function.
64.
65. Better memory occurs for items with
stronger brain processing at the time of
study:
Words evoking higher ERP signals are better
remembered later.
Greater frontal activation with deeper
processing of verbal information.
Greater activation of hippocampus with better
long-term memory.
66. Words activate left
prefrontal cortex
Pictures activate right
prefrontal cortex
Hemodynamic =
blow flow during
brain activity
67. Study alone does not improve memory –
what matters is how studying is done.
Shallow study results in little improvement.
Semantic associates (tulip-flower) better
remembered than rhymes (tower-flower),
81% vs 70%.
Better retention occurs for more
meaningful elaboration.
68. Elaboration – embellishing an item with
additional information.
Anderson & Bower – subjects added
details to simple sentences:
57% recall without elaboration
72% recall with made-up details added
Self-generated elaborations are better
than experimenter-generated ones.
69. Stein & Bransford – subjects were given
10 sentences. Four conditions:
Just the sentences alone – 4.2 adjectives
Subject generates an elaboration – 5.8
Experimenter-generated imprecise elaboration
– 2.2
Experimenter-generated precise elaboration –
7.8
Precision of detail (constraint) matters,
not who generates the elaboration.
70. PQ4R method – use questions to guide
reading.
64% correct, compared to 57% (controls)
76% of relevant questions correct, 52% of
non-relevant.
These study techniques work because
they encourage elaboration.
Question making and question answering both
improve memory for text (reviewing is better
than seeing the questions first).
71. Elaboration need not be meaningful –
other sorts of elaboration also work.
Kolers compared memory for right-side-up
sentences with upside-down.
Extra processing needed to read upside down
may enhance memory.
Slamecka & Graf – compared generation
of synonyms and rhymes. Both improved
memory, but synonyms did more.
72.
73. Method of Loci – place items in a location,
then take a mental walk.
Peg-word System – use peg words as a
structure and associate a list of items with
them using visualization.
Create acronyms for lists of items.
Convert nonsense syllables (DAX, GIB)
into meaningful items by associating them
with real words (e.g., DAD).
75. 1 – bun
2 – shoe
3 – tree
4 – door
5 – hive
6 – sticks
7 – heaven
8 – gate
9 – wine
10 -- hen
76. It does not matter whether people intend
to learn something or not.
What matters is how material is processed.
Orienting tasks:
Count whether work has e or g.
Rate the pleasantness of words.
Half of subjects told they would be asked to
remember words later, half not told.
No advantage to knowing ahead of time.
77.
78. Self-reference effect -- people have better
memory for events that are important to
them and close friends.
Flashbulb memories – recall of traumatic
events long after the fact.
Seem vivid but can be very inaccurate.
Thatcher’s resignation:
60% memory for UK subjects, 20% non-UK
79. Two explanations:
People have special mechanisms for encoding
info relevant to themselves.
Info relevant to the self is rehearsed more
often.
High arousal may enhance memory.
Memory is better for words related to the
self – perhaps due to better elaboration.
80. University of Southern Mississippi
Department of Psychology
Dr. David J. Echevarria, PhD
Spring 2008
david.echevarria@usm.edu
www.usm.edu/neurolab
Chapter 7 Memory
81.
82. Chapter 6 is on learning
Chapter 7 is on memory
How is memory related to learning???
83. Think about all the times in one day
you rely on your memory:
When is my next class?
Did I pay my rent?
Where did I park my car?
When is my boy/girl friend’s birthday?
Performance on exams
84. Tip of the tongue
Did you ever say, “I can’t remember”
only to actually “remember” later on?
How easily are they accessed?
What can interfere with memory?
85. Memory span: Number of items that
can be recalled from short-term
memory, in order, on half of the tested
memory trials
It’s about 7 plus or minus 2 items
Not absolute; also depends on:
How quickly items can be rehearsed
Chunking
▪ Rearranging incoming information into
meaningful or familiar patterns
86. Several distinct mechanisms:
Phonological loop: Like the inner voice; stores
word sounds
Visuospatial sketchpad: Stores visual and
spatial information
Central executive: Determines which
mechanism to use, coordinates among them
Brain damage can selectively affect a
single mechanism
87. How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in
memory?
How is information pulled back out of
memory?
93. Above is a scanpath of one reader over a broadsheet newspaper spread. The reader
turned pages in her own pace, and read the entire newspaper.
This is quite typical data. The texts are read no deeper than 40 % of their lengths.
Very short looks on photos and long looks on information graphics.
http://www.sol.lu.se/humlab/eyetracking/
Scanning a Scene
95. Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other
information at the time of encoding
Thinking of examples
Visual Imagery = creation of visual
images to represent words to be
remembered
Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding theory
Self-Referent Encoding
Making information personally meaningful
96. Analogy: information storage in computers
~ information storage in human memory
Information-processing theories
Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
▪ Sensory, Short-term, Long-term
97. Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
98. Brief preservation of information in
original sensory form
Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼
second
George Sperling (1960)
▪ Classic experiment on visual sensory store
100. Limited capacity – magical number 7
plus or minus 2
Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit
Limited duration – about 20
seconds without rehearsal
Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the
information
102. STM not limited to phonemic encoding
Loss of information not only due to decay
Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of
working memory
Phonological rehearsal loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
Executive control system
103. Permanent storage?
Flashbulb memories
Recall through hypnosis
Debate: are STM and LTM really different?
Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding
Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
104. Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies
Schemas and Scripts
Semantic Networks
Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
105. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a
failure in retrieval
Retrieval cues
Recalling an event
Context cues
Reconstructing memories
Misinformation effect
▪ Source monitoring, reality monitoring
106. Retention – the proportion of material
retained
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
120. Engage in adequate rehearsal
Distribute practice and minimize
interference
Emphasize deep processing and transfer-
appropriate processing
Organize information
Use verbal mnemonics
Use visual mnemonics
122. Neurobiology of memory
Identifying where and how different types of
information are stored
Hebb
Memory results from synaptic modification
Study of simple invertebrates
Synaptic alterations underlie memories
(procedural)
Electrical stimulation of brain
Experimentally produce measurable synaptic
alterations - dissect mechanisms
123. Procedural memories amenable to
investigation
Nonassociative Learning
Habituation
▪ Learning to ignore stimulus
that lacks meaning
Sensitization
▪ Learning to intensify response
to stimuli
124. Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning: Pair an unconditional
stimulus (UC) with a conditional stimulus (CS)
to get a conditioned response (CR)
125. Associative Learning (Cont’d)
Instrumental Conditioning
▪ Learn to associate a response with a meaningful
stimulus, e.g., reward lever pressing for food
▪ Complex neural circuits related to role played by
motivation
126. Experimental advantages in using
invertebrate nervous systems
Small nervous systems
Large neurons
Identifiable neurons
Identifiable circuits
Simple genetics
128. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Habituation results from presynaptic modification at L7
129. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Repeated electrical stimulation of a sensory neuron leads to a
progressively smaller EPSP in the postsynaptic motor neuron
130. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia (Cont’d)
Sensitization of the Gill-Withdrawal Reflex involves L29 axoaxonic
synapse
131. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia
(Cont’d)
5-HT released by L29 in response
to head shock leads to G-protein
coupled activation of adenylyl
cyclase in sensory axon terminal.
Cyclic AMP production activates
protein kinase A.
Phosphate groups attach to a
potassium channel, causing it to
close
132. Nonassociative Learning in Aplysia
(Cont’d)
Effect of decreased potassium
conductance in sensory axon
terminal
More calcium ions admitted into
terminal and more transmitter
release
133. Associative Learning in Aplysia
Classical conditioning: CS initially
produces no response but after
pairing with US, causes withdrawal
134. • The molecular basis for classical conditioning in Aplysia
– Pairing CS and US causes greater activation of adenylyl cyclase
because CS admits Ca2+ into the presynaptic terminal
135. Neural basis of memory: principles
learned from invertebrate studies
Learning and memory can result from
modifications of synaptic transmission
Synaptic modifications can be triggered by
conversion of neural activity into intracellular
second messengers
Memories can result from alterations in
existing synaptic proteins
136. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Cerebellum: Important site for motor learning
Anatomy of the Cerebellar Cortex
▪ Features of Purkinje cells
▪ Dendrites extend only into molecular layer
▪ Cell axons synapse on deep cerebellar nuclei neurons
▪ GABA as a neurotransmitter
138. • Cancellation of expected reafference in the electrosensory
cerebellum of skates- synaptic plasticity at parallel fiber
synapses.
139. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
Long-Term Depression in the Cerebellar Cortex
140. Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellar Cortex
(Cont’d)
Mechanisms of cerebellar LTD
▪ Learning
▪ Rise in [Ca2+]i and [Na+]i and the activation of protein
kinase C
▪ Memory
▪ Internalized AMPA channels and depressed excitatory
postsynaptic currents
143. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
LTP and LTD
▪ Key to forming declarative memories in the brain
Bliss and Lomo
▪ High frequency electrical stimulation of excitatory pathway
Anatomy of Hippocampus
▪ Brain slice preparation: Study of LTD and LTP
148. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
BCM theory
▪ When the postsynaptic cell is
weakly depolarized by other inputs:
Active synapses undergo LTD
instead of LTP
▪ Accounts for bidirectional synaptic
changes (up or down)
149. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
(Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking
▪ Stable synaptic transmission: AMPA receptors are
replaced maintaining the same number
▪ LTD and LTP disrupt equilibrium
▪ Bidirectional regulation of phosphorylation
150. LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor
Trafficking (Cont’d)
151. LTP, LTD, and Glutamate Receptor Trafficking (Cont’d)
152. Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus (Cont’d)
LTP, LTD, and Memory
▪ Tonegawa, Silva, and colleagues
▪ Genetic “knockout” mice
▪ Consequences of genetic deletions (e.g., CaMK11 subunit)
▪ Advances (temporal and spatial control)
▪ Limitations of using genetic mutants to study LTP/learning:
secondary consequences
153. Phosphorylation as a long term
mechanism:Persistently Active
Protein Kinases
Phosphorylation maintained:
Kinases stay “on”
▪ CaMKII and LTP
▪ Molecular switch hypothesis
154. Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis required for formation of long-
term memory
▪ Protein synthesis inhibitors
▪ Deficits in learning and memory
CREB and Memory
▪ CREB: Cyclic AMP response element binding protein
155.
156. Protein Synthesis (Cont’d)
Structural Plasticity and Memory
▪ Long-term memory associated with transcription
and formation of new synapses
▪ Rat in complex environment: Shows increase in
number of neuron synapses by about 25%
157. Learning and memory
Occur at synapses
Unique features of Ca2+
Critical for neurotransmitter secretion and
muscle contraction, every form of synaptic
plasticity
Charge-carrying ion plus a potent second
messenger
▪ Can couple electrical activity with long-term changes
in brain
159. The molecular basis for classical conditioning in Aplysia
Pairing CS and US causes greater activation of adenylyl
cyclase because CS admits Ca2+ into the presynaptic terminal
160. Associative Learning in Aplysia
Classical conditioning: CS initially produces no response but after
pairing with US, causes withdrawal
162. LECTURE 20-21: CELLULAR BASIS OF LEARNING & MEMORY
REQUIRED READING: Kandel text, Chapter 63, and Assigned Review Articles
Research on cellular basis of learning & memory mainly performed in three animal systems
Aplysia Drosophila Mouse
All neurons and synapses
in behavioral circuits are
identified and can be recorded
easily
Ideal for detailing mechanisms
underlying implicit learned motor
responses
Capable of
learned behaviors
Amenable to random
mutagenesis and
selection of mutants
with defective
behaviors
Similar anatomy to human
Amenable to study of
explicit memory
Hippocampus amenable
to electrophysiology
Behavior modification of
genetically modified mice
163. APLYSIA SHORT-TERM LEARNED RESPONSES AFFECTING GILL WITHDRAWL REFLEX
HABITUATION SENSITIZATION CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Repeated tactile stimulation of
siphon
depresses
gill withdrawl response
Harmful stimulus
sensitizes
gill withdrawl response
to subsequent
harmful OR harmless
stimuli given to
same OR different
body regions
Pairing harmful stimulus
with preceding harmless
conditioning stimulus sensitizes
gill withdrawl response
to subsequent
conditioning stimulus
but not to tactile stimuli
given to other body areas
164. HABITUATION IS DUE TO DEPRESSED NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE AT SEVERAL SITES
Rapidly repeated tactile stimulation of siphon
attenuates gill withdrawl both during the
training and for a short period afterwards.
Habituation is due to reduced
neurotransmitter release by the
sensory neuron and by relevant interneurons
in response to the tactile stimulus.
I.e., the memory of habituation
is distributed at various synapses
in the circuit
Whereas a rapid series of stimuli induces
short-term habituation,
several sets of tactile stimuli distributed
over several hours induces
long-term habituation that lasts for weeks.
165. SHORT-TERM SENSITIZATION IS MEDIATED THROUGH AXO-AXONIC
SEROTONERGIC SYNAPSES OF FACILITATING INTERNEURONS
Serotonergic facilitating interneurons
send axo-axonic connections to
broadly distributed sensory neurons
Unconditioned stimulus causes
interneurons to release serotonin,
which acts through metabotropic
HT receptors to increase the
likelihood of neurotransmitter release
following sensory neuron firing
Sensitization can be mimicked without
sensitizing stimulus by local
experimental application of serotonin
Sensitization is mediated by
presynaptic elevation of
cAMP & PKA activity,
which has three effects:
1) Greater proportion of vesicles
166. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING EMPLOYS SEQUENCE-REINFORCED PRODUCTION OF cAMP
Conditioning is only effective when CS precedes US by a short interval (~ 0.5 se
CS elevates calcium in presynaptic terminal at moment of US.
Calcium/CAM enhances the enzymatic activity of adenylate cyclase triggered by
Adenylate cyclase is a biochemical “coincidence detector”
167. TEMPORALLY SPACED SENSITIZATION OR CONDITIONING TRAININGS
INDUCE LONG-TERM IMPLICIT MEMORY
Long-term sensitization
and conditioning are
also mediated through
presynaptic cAMP
production
and PKA activity
PKA induces specific
CREB-dependent
gene transcription and
protein synthesis:
Newly synthesized
ubiquitin
hydrolase degrades
PKA regulatory subunits,
making the enzyme
constitutively active
Other newly synthesized
168. GENETIC SCREENS FOR GENES AFFECTING CONDITIONING IMPLICIT MEMORY
ALL AFFECT THE cAMP-PKA-CREB PATHWAY
FLY MUTANTS SELECTED FOR DEFECTS IN IMPLICIT MEMORY
DUNCE encodes cAMP phosphodiesterase
RUTABAGA mutant defective for Ca+2/CAM enhancement of cyclase
AMNESIAC encodes a peptide neurotransmitter acting on GS-coupled rec
PKA-R1 encodes PKA
169. HIPPOCAMPAL NEURONS IN DIFFERENT RELAYS ARE ALL
CAPABLE OF UNDERGOING SYNAPTIC LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
AXON STIMULATION PROTOCOL AMPLITUDE OF EPSCS
20 min1 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original)
300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80“THETA” BURST
One Theta burst gives what is sometimes c
Early LTP,
which is less than doubling
of EPSC which lasts for hours
Four Theta bursts spaced minutes apart ge
Late LTP,
with up to 4-fold EPSC stimulation
that lasts for days
170. INDUCTION AND EXPRESSION OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY
Prior synaptic activity can INDUCE long-term plasticity. Such plasticity can be IND
molecular events occuring either presynaptically or postsynaptically.
The changes in transmission following synaptic plasticity can be EXPRESSED eith
presynaptically and/or postsynaptically, and need not correspond to the site of IN
E.g., at a certain synapse, postsynaptic calcium influx can INDUCE plasticity which
EXPRESSED as changes in presynaptic neurotransmitter release probability.
171. LTP AT MOSSY FIBER--CA3 SYNAPSES IS DUE TO PRESYNAPTIC CALCIUM INFLUX
AND cAMP/PKA PATHWAY
172. LTP AT SCHAFFER COLLATERAL--CA1 SYNAPSES IS DUE TO
POSTSYNAPTIC CALCIUM INFLUX AND CAM KINASE ACTIVITY
LTP at CA3-CA1 synapse is blocked by
NMDAR antagonist APV and by inhibitors
of CAM kinase
173. PRESYNAPTIC COMPONENT OF EARLY AND LATE LTP AT
CA3--CA1 SYNAPSES RESEMBLES SHORT- AND LONG-TERM SENSITIZATION
Late LTP
absolutely requires
new protein synthesis
174. PRESYNAPTIC COMPONENT OF EARLY AND LATE LTP REQUIRES
POSTSYNAPTIC CAMK ACTIVITY AND RETROGRADE SIGNALS
175. OTHER MECHANISMS OF PLASTICITY ENHANCING EPSPS
LTP can be expressed postsynaptically as a reduction of leak conductance in dend
This enables the EPSC to generate EPSP with greater length and time constants
Excitatory transmission can be enhanced by HETEROSYNAPTIC INHIBITION OF
TRANSMISSION. This is mediated by endogenous cannabinoids acting on pre
terminals of nearby GABAergic synapses.
176. IS LTP REQUIRED FOR HIPPOCAMPAL CONSOLIDATION OF EXPLICIT MEMORY?
CAMK AND NMDAR1 NEEDED FOR LONG-TERM SPATIAL REPRESENTATION IN HIPPOCAMPU
Single pyramidal neuron
in hippocampus
fires when mouse is in
certain location
(independent of
animal’s orientation)
Normal mouse remembers
where it has been.
spatial map in HC
does not change in
subsequent chamber trials
177. IS LTP REQUIRED FOR HIPPOCAMPAL CONSOLIDATION OF EXPLICIT MEMORY?
HIPPOCAMPAL CAMK AND NMDAR1 NEEDED FOR BOTH LTP AND SPATIAL MEMORY
178. SYNAPSES SENSITIVE TO NMDAR-MEDIATED LTP ARE ALSO SENSITIVE
TO NMDAR-MEDIATED LONG-TERM DEPRESSION (LTD)
AXON STIMULATION PROTOCOL AMPLITUDE OF EPSCS
20 min1 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original)
300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80
LTP
20 min5 m 60 min
EPSPSlope(%original) 300
100
200
TIME (min)
6020 40 80
LTD
179. LTD HAS A LOWER CALCIUM CONCENTRATION THRESHOLD THAN LTP,
BUT LTP IS DOMINANT
LOW-FREQUENCY STIMULUS TRAIN
LOW-LEVEL CALCIUM ENTRY
ACTIVATION OF CALCINEURIN
AMPA RECEPTOR INTERNALIZATION
THETA- OR HIGH-FREQUENCY STIMULU
GREATER CALCIUM ENTRY
ACTIVATION OF CALCINEURIN AND CAM
AMPA RECEPTOR INSERTION AND PHO
180. STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL FEATURES OF AMPA-TYPE GLUTAMATE RECEPTORS
AMPA receptors are homo- or hetero-tetramers
Restriction of calcium entry mediated by GluR2; tetramers containing >1 GluR2 subunit co
AMPA receptors encoded by different genes or by alternative splicing have different C-term
Receptor tails contain phosphorylation sites for different protein kinases and binding sites
for PDZ-domain-containing proteins
Receptors containing only GluR2(short) and/or GluR3 subunits are delivered constitutively
vesicles to synapse
Retention at synapse mediated by complex with Glutamate Receptor Interacting Protein (G
181. NMDAR-INDUCED CAMK ACTIVITY ACTS ON AMPA RECEPTORS IN TWO WAYS
TO PROMOTE LTP
CAMK
PDZ-protein
STG
GRIP
PSD-95
GRIP
PSD-95
Calcineurin
CAMK phosphorylates an unknown
protein, enabling a PDZ-protein
that interacts with long tail
on GluR1 to deliver receptor
TO EXTRASYNAPTIC SITE
Delivered receptors migrate (randomly?)
into post-synaptic density,
where interactions of receptor-
associated GRIP and STG and the
major postsynaptic matrix protein
PSD-95 anchor receptor to synapse
Newly delivered GluR1-containing
AMPA receptors can be phosphorylated
directly by CAMK, which
increases unitary conductance
Calcineurin activation promotes internalization
of AMPA receptors containing only
short-tail subunits, thereby promoting LTD
WHEN HIGH CALCIUM ENTRY ACTIVATES BOTH CALCINEURIN AND CAMK
CAMK-MEDIATED GluR1-CONTAINING AMPAR EXOCYTOSIS EXCEEDS CAL
SHORT TAIL-ONLY AMPAR ENDOCYTOSIS
182. HIGH CAMK ACTIVITY INDUCED DURING LATE LTP IS ALSO MEDIATED BY
NEW CAM KINASE PROTEIN SYNTHESIS NEAR THE SYNAPSE
Most mRNAs have 3’ polyA tail, which is necessary for initiation of the mRNA’s translatio
Neurons contain some mRNAs that are not polyadenylated, are not translated,
and are transported along dendrites to areas near dendritic spines
NMDA receptor activation and calcium entry activates a protein kinase
called AURORA
Aurora kinase activates translation of nearby dormant mRNAs
ONE OF THESE DORMANT RNAs ENCODES CAM KINASE
Because of its dendritic localizaation, new CAMK synthesis is restricted to the synapse u
The dendritic localization of dormant CAMK RNA and its activation during LTP are media
Cytoplasmic Polyadenylation Element Binding (CPEB) protein
183. HOW DOES CPEB PROTEIN CONTROL RNA DORMANCY AND ACTIVATION IN NEURONS?
PolyA is needed for assembly of 5’
translation initiation complex
CPEB protein binding to 3’ CPE
helps mask RNA 5’ end
CPEB phosphorylation by Aurora allows for recruitment of polyA polye
Polyadenylation of dormant RNA allows assembly of 5’ translation initia
185. The strange case of
Charles D’Sousa
Or is it Philip Cutajar?
Rare type of disorder
Some stuff clearly
spared
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
186. Results with amnesiacs has lead to many
discoveries about memory
Episodic vs. semantic memory
Procedural vs. declarative memory
Implicit vs. explicit memory
Phonological loop vs. visuo spatial sketchpad
187. Taxonomy
Individual differences
Interpretation
Application
Mostly comes down to a lack of control,
which of course is inevitable
188. We pretty much have to rely on these
They are, thankfully, rare
Usually some sort of accident or a stroke
189. Stroke patient
Both Medial temporal lobes, left Hp and
lots of surrounding area, but not the
amygdala
Had trouble naming objects
Anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Similar to KC
190. Case of encephalitis
Pervasive amnesia
Both semantic and
episodic impairment
Temporal lobe dilation
Hp destroyed
QuickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
191. Retrograde amnesia
Losing past memories
Anterograde amnesia
No new memories
Spared function
Often implicit tasks, such as priming or ability
to learn a new skill
192. Working Memory
Semantic memory
Even KC could learn new stuff
Declarative information using Tulving’s
method
Restrict errors
193. Difficulties in interference, retrieval and
encoding
Consolidation
Tends to come down to something to do with
HP
Context or sending item off for processing or
some such thing
194. What is a cat?
Temporal lobe problems
Oddly enough, episodic memory often
intact in these rare cases
195. There are cases of people with intact
phonological loops and visuo spatial
sketchpads that are pretty much toast
And vice versa
196. More than half of all
dementia is from AD
2 times more
women than men
Could be because
women live longer
though
dementia and brain
stuff
Neurofibrillary
tangles and neuritic
plaques
197. MASSIVE cell death
In essence, you get like lesions
everywhere
‘cortical’ dementia, but you get these
lesions, holes really, everywhere
198. ACh is important in memory, especially in
HP
The ACh system is severely damaged in
AD
Indeed it is almost targeted
Other systems too though
199. Episodic effects
Eventually semantic effects
Retrieval cues don’t help
Information was not even encoded
Nondeclarative stuff, skills etc, are the last
to go
200. Most drugs target the cholinergic system
This disease not only affects the victim,
but also his/her family
NGF is promising
Treatments will come, but, reversal, I
dunno
Respite care is key for the family
201. Frankly there is not a great deal of hope
for most amnesiacs
That said, neuroscience is moving pretty
fast
Has helped us understand normal function
206. The limits of short-term and
working memory
Source: (a) Adapted from Peterson, L.M. and Peterson, J.M., Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 1959, 58, 193–198., (b) Adapted from Waugh, N.C. and Norman, D.A., Primary memory.
Psychological Review, 1965, 72, 89–104.
207. Shallow versus deep
processing
Source: Based on Craik, F.I.M. and Lockhart, R.S., Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of
Verbal Behavior, 1972, 11, 671–684.
208. Explicit versus implicit
memory
Source: Based on data from Graf, P. and Mandler, G., Activation makes words more accessible, but not necessarily more
retrievable. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1984, 23, 553–568.
210. Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve
Source: Adapted from Ebbinghaus, H., Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H.A. Ruger and C.E. Bussenius,
trans.), 1885/1913. Teacher’s College Press, Columbia University, New York.
211. Eyewitness testimony
Source: Based on data from Loftus, E.F. and Palmer, J.C., Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the
interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 1974, 13, 585–589.
213. Explicit and implicit memory of amnesic
and non-amnesic individuals
Source: Adapted from Graf, P., Squire, L.R. and Mandler, G., The information that amnesic patients do not forget. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory and cognition, 1984, 10, 164–178.
217. Encode information into memory traces (stored
bits of memory)
Process information and put into memory
storage
Use retrieval to recall and output information
when needed
218. • Information-processing approach: mind
functions like a sophisticated computer
• Unlike computers, human minds have the
capacity for consciousness
▪ Awareness of one’s own thoughts and the
external world
▪ Focusing attention brings stimulus into
consciousness
219. Explicit memory
Conscious use of memory
Searching memory for stored information
Implicit memory
Access and retrieve memories without
conscious effort
220. Sensory memory
Information comes into sensory organs, stored
briefly in sensory form
Short-term memory
Temporary holding tank for limited amounts of
information
Long-term memory
Permanent storage of memories
221.
222. Information received from sense organs lasts for
short period of time
Acquire information primarily from sight (iconic
memory) and hearing (echoic memory), but also
through other senses (haptic memory)
Transfer occurs when we pay attention to
sensory input to move it from iconic memory to
short-term memory
223. Temporary holding tank
Utilizes dual-coding system
Memories stored visually or acoustically
Limited capacity and duration
224. George Miller
Average person holds about 7 + 2 items in STM
Phone numbers, social security numbers, etc.
Chunking can help increase capacity
Grouping information into meaningful units
Number of chunks that can be held decreases
as chunks get larger
225. Once passed into STM, information can only be
kept for 30 seconds without some type of
processing
Maintenance rehearsal
Repetition of material in short-term memory
226. Maintenance rehearsal produces a weak transfer
into LTM
Elaborative rehearsal
Forming associations, or mental connections,
between information in STM to information
already stored in LTM
227. Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart
The more thoroughly or deeply you process
information, the stronger the transfer to LTM
Both maintenance and elaborative rehearsal
allow for transfer to LTM, but elaborative
rehearsal involves a deep level of processing
Difference between simply repeating material
and thinking about material
Pays off in terms of storage and retrieval of
information
228. LTM is where information is stored for long
periods of time
Limitless capacity
Capacity problems are likely related to lack of
focus or lack of space in STM or working
memory
229. Encoding—how we break down the
information coming into our senses
Storage—keeping memories in our long
term memory
Retrieval—process in which information in
your memory can be recalled
230. Encoding occurs in several forms
Acoustic (sound), visual, semantic
Semantic encoding is most common
Stores general meaning, rather than all
sensory details
Encode and connect new information with
already stored information in LTM
231. Schemata – generalized knowledge structures
Filing systems for knowledge about particular
concepts
Default values for missing information
Various types of schemata
Object, abstract concept, person
Stereotypes
Scripts
232. Declarative memory – explicit memory for
knowledge easily verbalized (e.g. names, dates)
Two parts of declarative memory
Semantic memory – concepts
Episodic memory – memory for events
▪ Also called autobiographical memory
▪ Memories have personal awareness
233. Females betters able to recall emotional
childhood memories
Females tend to organize autobiographical
memories in more diverse categories (i.e. more
elaborative processing)
234. Memory that is not readily put into words -
procedures for skills such as riding a bike, tying
shoe, etc.
Often is implicit memory (unconscious)
Tends to last longer than declarative memory
Studies from people with amnesia suggest that
procedural memory is a separate memory
system
235. Retrieval – act of moving information from LTM
back to working memory or consciousness
Probe or cue sent in search of stored memory
traces
Recall task – probe relatively weak and does not
contain much cue information (e.g. essay
question)
Recognition task – probe stronger, contains
more cue information (e.g. multiple choice
question)
Memory must be available and accessible
236. Pay attention, minimizing distractions
Do not cram for exams
Distributed is better than massed practice
Use elaborative rehearsal
Use overlearning
Use mnemonic devices
Acronyms (APA), acrostics(rhyme or saying)
▪ Remember the major functions of memory: Ellen
stopped remembering (encoding, storage, retrieval)
237. Flashbulb memories – detailed memories of
emotionally charged events
These memories are not always accurate
Store gist of information in LTM, not exact
details
Examples of flashbulb memories:
▪ Attacks on 9/11
▪ Assassination of JFK
▪ Birth of child
▪ Wedding
238. Elizabeth Loftus
Eyewitness memory can be manipulated by
expectations
Memories can be permanently altered by things
that happen after we encode memories (false
memories)
False memories become part of memory of
original event
240. Memory
persistence of learning over time
via the storage and retrieval of
information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an
emotionally significant moment
or event
241. Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the
memory system
i.e., extracting meaning
242. Storage
the retention of encoded information
over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out of
memory
243. Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of
sensory information in the memory
system
Working Memory
focuses more on the processing of
briefly stored information
244. Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few
items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly
dial before the information is forgotten
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
247. Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental
information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards
248. Effortful Processing
requires attention and conscious
effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
249. Ebbinghaus used nonsense
syllables
TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions to relearn on
Day 2
Spacing Effect
distributed practice yields better long-
term retention than massed practice
250. 20
15
10
5
0
8 16 24 32 42 53 64
Time in
minutes
taken to
relearn
list on
day 2
Number of repetitions of list on day 1
252. Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images
253.
254. Imagery
mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic
encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
255. Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable
units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
257. Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and
further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Encoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
258. Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory
lasting no more that a few tenths of a
second
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli
259. Short-Term
Memory
limited in
duration and
capacity
“magical”
number 7+/-2
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentage
who recalled
consonants
260. How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950)
rats learn maze
lesion cortex
test memory
Synaptic changes
Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid
stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger memories
some stress hormones boost learning and retention
261. Amnesia--the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can
consciously know and declare
also called declarative memory
hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that
helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
retention independent of conscious recollection
also called procedural memory
263. MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
264. Recall
measure of memory in which the
person must retrieve information
learned earlier
as on a fill-in-the blank test
Recognition
Measure of memory in which the
person has only to identify items
previously learned
as on a multiple-choice test
265. Relearning
memory measure that assesses
the amount of time saved when
learning material a second time
Priming
activation, often unconsciously,
of particular associations in
memory
267. Deja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously
trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before."
Mood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with
one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or
depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same
state
268. After learning to move
a mobile by kicking,
infants had their
learning reactivated
most strongly when
retested in the same
rather than a different
context (Butler &
Rovee-Collier, 1989).
269. Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the long-term
memory
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-
term
memory
Long-
term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting
271. Ebbinghaus
forgetting
curve over
30 days--
initially
rapid, then
levels off
with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
272. The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retention
drops,
then levels off
1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage of
original
vocabulary
retained
273. Forgetting can result from failure to
retrieve information from long-term
memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
274. Learning some items may disrupt
retrieval of other information
Proactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of
new information
Retroactive (backwards acting)
Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of
old information
275.
276. Retroactive Interference
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentage
of syllables
recalled
277. Forgetting can
occur at any
memory stage
As we process
information,
we filter, alter,
or lose much
of it
278. Motivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise memories
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
279. We filter information and fill in
missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event
that we experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined (misattribution)
281. Memories of Abuse
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
282. Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are especially unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3
are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting
283. Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or
actively thinking about the material
Make material personally
meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something
already stored
make up story
chunk--acronyms
284. Activate retrieval cues--mentally
recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh--
before you encounter misinformation
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet
know
289. EVOLUTION: CHANGE (in behavior)THROUGH TIME.
DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION: THE MODE OF EVOLUTION BY
BRANCHING COMMON DESCENT.
GRADUALISM: CHANGE (in behavior) IS SLOW, STEADY, STATELY.
NATURA NON FACIT SALTUS. GIVEN ENOUGH TIME EVOLUTION CAN
ACCOUNT FOR THE ORIGIN OF NEW SPECIES.
MULTIPLICATION OF SPECIATION: EVOLUTION PRODUCES NOT JUST
NEW SPECIES (behavior), BUT AN INCREASING NUMBER OF NEW SPECIES
(behaviors).
NATURAL SELECTION: THE MECHANISM OF EVOLUTIONARY CHANGE
CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO FIVE STEPS: (SEE NEXT SLIDE).
290. 1. POPULATIONS [behaviors] TEND TO INCREASE INDEFINITELY IN A
GEOMETRIC RATIO. [FROM OBSERVATION]
2. IN A NATURAL ENVIRONMENT, HOWEVER, POPULATION [behavior]
NUMBERS STABILIZE AT A CERTAIN LEVEL. [FROM OBSERVATION]
THERE MUST BE A “STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE” SINCE NOT ALL
ORGANISMS [behaviors] PRODUCED CAN SURVIVE. [FROM INFERENCE]
THERE IS VARIATION IN EVERY SPECIES [behaviors]. [FROM
OBSERVATION]
IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, THOSE VARIATIONS THAT ARE
BETTER ADAPTED TO THE ENVIRONMENT LEAVE BEHIND MORE
OFFSPRING THAN THE LESS WELL ADAPTED INDIVIDUALS, ALSO KNOWN
AS DIFFERENTIAL REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS. [FROM INFERENCE]
291. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING SHOULD APPLY EQUALLY TO DIFFERENT
BEHAVIORS AND TO DIFFERENT SPECIES OF ANIMALS
LEARNING PROCESSES CAN BE STUDIED MOST OBJECTIVELY WHEN
THE FOCUS OF STUDY IS ON STIMULI AND RESPONSES.
INTERNAL PROCESSES ARE LARGELY EXCLUDED FROM SCIENTIFIC
STUDY
LEARNING INVOLVES A BEHAVIOR CHANGE
ORGANISMS ARE BORN AS BLANK SLATES (tabula rasa).
LEARNING IS LARGELY THE RESULT OF ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS.
THE MOST USEFUL THEORIES TEND TO BE PARSIMONIOUS ONES.
297. Observational learning
What is observational learning?
The classic Bobo doll study
Bandura’s contemporary model of
observational learning
▪ Attention
▪ Retention
▪ Motor reproduction
▪ Reinforcement of incentive conditions
299. Self-regulatory learning
▪ A model of self-regulatory learning
Self-Evaluation
and Monitoring
Putting a Plan into
Action and Monitoring It
Goal Setting and
Strategic Planning
Monitoring Outcomes
and Refining Strategies
301. Some Learning Processes may be unique to human beings.
Cognitive processes are the focus of study.
Objective, systematic observations of people’s behavior should
be the focus of scientific inquiry; however, inferences about
unobservable mental processes can often be drawn from
behavior.
Individuals are actively involved in the learning process.
Learning involves the formation of mental representations or
associations that are not necessarily reflected in overt behavior
changes.
302. Cognitive processes influence learning.
As children grow, they become capable of
increasingly more sophisticated thought.
People organize the things they learn.
New information is most easily acquired when
people can associate it with things they have
already learned.
People control their own learning.
303. Jean Piaget (French)
Lev Vygotsky (RUSSIAN)
Edward Tolman (American)
Jerome Bruner (American)
Kurt Lewin (German)