1. Leadership

2. Outline
 What Does Leadership Involve?
 Trait and Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 Situational Theories
 From Transactional to Charismatic Leadership
 Additional Perspectives on Leadership
- The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model
- Substitutes for Leadership
- Servant-Leadership
- Superleadership

3. What is Leadership?
• Definition:
A social influence process in which a person
seeks the voluntary participation of
subordinates in an effort to achieve
organizational goals

4. A Conceptual Framework for
Understanding Leadership
Leader Managerial Desired End
Characteristics/Traits Behavior/Roles Results
• Need for achievement • Interpersonal roles • Unit performance
• Need for power • Informational roles • Profitability
• Cognitive ability • Decisional roles • Goal attainment
• Interpersonal skills • Job satisfaction
• Self-confidence • Learning
• Ethics organization

5. A Conceptual Framework for
Understanding Leadership (continued)
Leader Managerial Desired End
Characteristics/Traits Behavior/Roles Results
Situational Variables
Individual level
• Leader’s position power
• Follower motivation
• Follower role clarity
• Follower ability
Organizational level
• Resource adequacy
• Task/technology
• Organization structure
• External enviornment

6. The leader
(trait, style, behavior, The task
vision, charisma) (from holistic to
reductionism,
needing
discretion or
The led (follower) direction)
(motivations, readiness,
attitudes)
The organization
(structural, political, moral purpose)

7. Contingency Theory of Leadership
• Contingency theory of leadership assumes
that there is no one best way to lead.
• Effective leadership depends on the leader’s
and follower’s characteristics as well as other
factors in the leadership situation.

8. Central Features of the Contingency Theory of
Leadership
Best way: there is no one best way to lead.
Leadership style: Different leadership styles are
appropriate for different situations.
Middle ground: The contingency theory stresses
the views that (a) there is some middle ground
between the existence of universal principles of
leadership that fit all situations and (b) each
situation is unique and therefore must be
studied and treated as unique.

9. Central Features of the Contingency Theory of
Leadership (Cont.)
Focus: The contingency theories of leadership
we studied focus on three variables:
(a) leader’s style;
(b) follower’s motivation and skill; and
 (c) the nature of the task.
Adaptability of leadership style: For an
individual leader, this theory assumes that
leadership is changeable and should be variable
for different situations.

10. Differences between Leaders
and Managers
LEADERS MANAGERS
Innovate Administer
Develop Maintain
Inspire Control
Long-term view Short-term view
Ask what and why Ask how and when
Originate Initiate
Challenge the status quo Accept the status quo
Do the right things Do things right

11. Trait Theory
Leadership Traits: represent the personal characteristics that differentiate leaders from
followers.
 Historic findings reveal that leaders and followers vary by
- intelligence
- dominance
- self-confidence
- level of energy and activity
- task-relevant knowledge
 Contemporary findings show that
- people tend to perceive that someone is a leader when he or she exhibits traits
associated with intelligence, masculinity, and dominance
- people want their leaders to be credible
- credible leaders are honest, forward-looking, inspiring, and
competent

12. Trait Theory (continued)
Gender and leadership
 men and women differ in the type of leadership roles
they assume in work groups:
 men display more task
leadership and
 women exhibit more social leadership
 leadership styles vary by gender:
 women are more democratic and
 men are more autocratic and directive
 female and male leaders are equally effective

13. Trait Theory (continued)
Gender and leadership (continued)
 men are perceived as more effective than women when the job is defined in masculine
terms, and women are more effective than men in roles defined in less masculine
terms
 male leaders are perceived as more effective than females when there are
a greater percentage of
male leaders and male
direct reports; the same
positive bias is not
true for women leaders

14. Four Leadership Styles Derived
from the Ohio State Studies
Low structure, High structure,
high consideration high consideration
Less emphasis is placed on The leader provides a lot of guidance
High structuring employee tasks while the about how tasks can be completed
Consideration
leader concentrates on satisfying while being highly considerate of
employee needs and wants. employee needs and wants.
Low structure, High structure,
low consideration low consideration
The leader fails to provide necessary Primary emphasis is placed on
Low structure and demonstrates little structuring employee tasks while
consideration for employee needs the leader demonstrates little
and wants. consideration for employee needs
and wants.
Low High
Initiating Structure

15. The Leadership Grid®
High
9 1, 9 9,9
Country club Team
8 management management
7
6 5,5
Middle-of-the
5 road management
4
3
1,1 9,1
2 Impoverished Authority-
1 management compliance
Low Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 High
Concern for Production
Source: From Leadership Dilemmas - Grid Solutions, p 29 by Robert R Blake and Anne Adams McCanse.
Copyright © 1991 by Robert R Blake and the estate of Jane S Mouton. Used with permission. All rights reserved.

16. The Leadership Grid
High 1,9 9,9
Country Club Management Team Management
8 Thoughtful attention to the needs Work accomplishment is from
of the people for satisfying committed people;
7 relationships leads to a interdependence through a
comfortable, friendly organization “common stake” in organization
6 atmosphere and work tempo purpose leads to relationships of
trust and respect
Concern for People
Middle-of-the-road Management
5 5,5
Adequate organization performance is possible through
4 balancing the necessity to get work out while
maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level.
3
Impoverished Management Authority-Compliance Management
Exertion of minimum effort to get required Efficiency in operations results from arranging
2 work done is appropriate to sustain conditions of work in such a way that human
organization membership. elements interfere to a minimum degree
1 1,1
9,1
Low 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low Concern for Results High

17. Tannenbaum-Schmidt’s Continuum of Leader
Behavior
(Democratic) (Authoritarian)]
Relationships Oriented Task Oriented
Source of
Authority
Area of Freedom for
Subordinates
Leader Leader Leader Leader
permits presents presents makes
subordinates problem, idea decision
to function gets and and
within limits Leader suggestions, Leader invites Leader announce
defined defines and makes presents questions “sells” it
by superior limits; decision tentative decision
asks group decision
to make subject
decision to change

18. Behavioral Styles Theory
 Ohio State Studies identified two critical dimensions of leader
behavior.
1. Consideration: creating mutual respect and trust with followers
2. Initiating Structure: organizing and defining what group
members should be doing
 University of Michigan Studies identified two leadership styles that
were similar to the Ohio State studies
- one style was employee centered and the other was job centered
 Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid represents four leadership styles
found by crossing concern for production and concern for people
 Research shows that there is not one best style of leadership. The
effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation
at hand.

19. 17-9
Ethics at Work
Key Issue:
Can a leader
display too much
consideration?

20. Representation of Fiedler’s Contingency
Model
Situational High Control Moderate Low Control
Control Situations Control Situations Situations
Leader-member Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
relations
Task Structure High High Low Low High High Low Low
Position Power Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak
Situation I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Optimal
Task Motivated Relationship Task Motivated
Leadership
Leadership Motivated Leadership Leadership
Style

21. House’s Path-Goal Theory
Employee Characteristics
- Locus of control
- Task ability
- Need for achievement
- Experience
- Need for clarity
Leadership Styles Employee Attitudes
- Directive and Behavior
- Supportive - Job satisfaction
- Participative - Acceptance of leader
- Achievement oriented - Motivation
Environmental Factors
- Employee’s task
- Authority system
- Work group

22. Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Leadership Theory
Leader Behavior
High
Participating Selling
S3 S2
Relationship Behavior
Share ideas and Explain decisions and
(supportive behavior)
facilitate in provide opportunity for
decision making clarification
Delegating Telling
S4 S1
Turn over Provide specific
responsibility for instructions and closely
decisions and supervise performance
implementation
Low
Low Task Behavior High
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Follower-Directed Leader-Directed

23. Vroom-Yetten’s Contingency Model
Figure 5-5 Schematic representation of variables used in leadership research
Reprinted from Leadership and Decision-Making by Victor H. Vroom and Philip W. Yetton by permission of the University of
Pittsburgh Press. 1973 by University of Pittsburgh Press
Situational variables (1) Organizational (4)
effectiveness
Leader behavior(3)
Personal attributes(2) Situational variables(1a)
Is there a Do I have Is the Is acceptance Do subordinates Is conflict
quality re- sufficient problem of decision share the organ- among subor-
quirement such information structured? by subordinates izational goal dinates likely
that one solu- to make a critical to to be obtained in preferred
tion is likely high quality effective im- in solving this solutions?
to be more decision? plementation? problem?
rational than
another?
A B C D E F

24. House-Mitchell’s Path-Goal Theory
Causal Variables Moderator Variables Outcome Variables
Leader Behavior Subordinate Characteristics Satisfaction
Directive Ability Motivation
supportive Locus of Control Effort
participative Needs and Motives Performance
Relationship of Achievement-Oriented Environmental Forces
Variables in the The task
Path-Goal Theory Work Group
Authority System

25. House-Mitchell’s Path-Goal Theory
House’s Path-Goal Theory
Situations Leadership Leadership
style Actions
Ambiguous Directive Guidance
Roles Procedures
Stressful Welfare,
Boring Tasks Supportive Supportive
Climate
Leaders Goal
Accomplishment
Competent Achievement Challenging
Subordinates Oriented Goals and
Standards
Unstructured Participation
Tasks Participative in Decision
Making
Path Goal

26. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership
Task Behavior---The extent to which the leader engages in defining roles
is telling what, how, when, where, and if more than one person who
is to do what in:
• Goal-setting
• Organizing
• Establishing time lines
• Directing
• Controlling
Relationship Behavior—The extent to which a leader engages in two-
way (multi-way) communication, listening, facilitating behaviors,
and providing socioemotional support
• Giving support
• Communicating
• Facilitating interactions
• Active listening
• Providing feedback

27. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership
(Cont.)
Decision Styles
1. Leader-made decision
2. Leader-made decision with Dialogue and/or
Explanation
3. Leader/follower made decision or follower-made
decision with encouragement from leader
4. Follower-made decision

28. Blanchard and Hersey’s Theory of Situational Leadership (Cont.)
Ability: has the necessary knowledge, experience, and skill
Willingness: has the necessary confidence, commitment, motivation
Follower Readiness
High Moderate Low
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and Able but Unable but Unable and
Willing Unwilling Willing Unwilling
or Confident or Insecure or Confident or Insecure
Follower Directed Leader Directed
When a leader behavior is used appropriately with its corresponding level of readiness, it is
termed a High Probability Match. The following are descriptors that can be useful when using
situational leadership for specific applications.
S1 S2 S3 S4
Telling Selling Participating Delegati ng
Guiding Explaining Encouraging Observing
Directing Clarifying Collaborating Monitoring
Establishing Persuading Committing Fulfilling

29. Transactional versus Charismatic
Leadership
Transactional Leadership: focuses on the
interpersonal interactions between managers
and employees
Transactional Leaders
- use contingent rewards to motivate employees
- exert corrective action only when employees
fail to obtain performance goals

30. Transactional versus Charismatic Leadership
(continued)
Charismatic Leadership: emphasizes symbolic leader behavior that
transforms employees to pursue organizational goals over self-
interests
 Charismatic Leaders
- use visionary and inspirational messages
- rely on non-verbal communication
- appeal to ideological values
- attempt to intellectually stimulate employees
- display confidence in self and followers
- set high performance expectations
 For class discussion: Should a leader be both transactional and
charismatic? Is charismatic leadership only critical for senior
executives and not for entry level supervisors or managers?

31. Charismatic Model of Leadership
Effects on
Organizational Leader
followers and Outcomes
culture behavior
work groups
• Adaptive • Leader • Increased • Personal
establishes a intrinsic commitment
vision motivation, to leader
• Leader achievement and vision
establishes high orientation, and • Self-
performance goal pursuit sacrificial
expectations and • Increased behavior
displays identification • Organiza-
confidence in with the leader tional
him/herself and and the commitment
the collective collective • Task
ability to interests of meaningful-
realize the vision organizational ness and
members satisfaction

32. Charismatic Model of Leadership (continued)
Effects on
Organizational Leader
followers and Outcomes
culture behavior
work groups
• Leader models • Increased • Increased
the desired cohesion individual,
values, traits, among work- group, and
beliefs, and group members organiza-
behaviors • Increased tional
needed to self-esteem, performance
realize the self-efficacy,
vision and intrinsic
interests in goal
accomplishment
• Increased role
modeling of
charismatic
leadership

33. The Leader-Member Exchange
(LMX Model)
This model is based on the idea that one of two distinct
types of leader-member exchange relationships evolve,
and these exchanges are related to important work
outcomes.
- in-group exchange: a partnership characterized by
mutual trust, respect and liking
- out-group exchange: a partnership characterized by a
lack of mutual trust, respect and liking
Research supports this model

34. Substitutes for Leadership
Substitutes for leadership represent situational
variables that can substitute for, neutralize, or enhance
the effects of leadership.
Research shows that substitutes for leadership directly
influence employee attitudes and performance.

35. Servant and Super leadership
 Represents a philosophy of leadership in which
leaders focus on increased service to others
rather than to oneself.
 A super leader is someone who leads others to
lead themselves by developing employees’ self-
management skills.
 Super leaders attempt to increase employees’
feelings of personal control and intrinsic
motivation.

36. Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader
1. Listening Servant-leaders focus on listening to
identify and clarify the needs and desires of
a group.
2. Empathy Servant-leaders try to empathize with
others’ feelings and emotion. An individual’s
good intentions are assumed even when he
or she performs poorly.
3. Healing Servant-leaders strive to make themselves
and others whole in the face of failure or
suffering.
4. Awareness Servant-leaders are very self-aware or their
strengths and limitations.

37. Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader (continued)
5. Persuasion Servant-leaders rely more on persuasion than
positional authority when making decisions
and trying to influence others.
6. Conceptualization Servant-leaders take the time and effort to
develop broader based conceptual thinking.
Servant-leaders seek an appropriate balance
between a short-term, day-to-day focus and
a long-term, conceptual orientation.
7. Foresight Servant-leaders have the ability to foresee
future outcomes associated with a current
course of action or situation.

38. Characteristics of the
Servant-Leader (continued)
8. Stewardship Servant-leaders assume that they are
stewards of the people and resources they
manage.
9. Commitment to Servant-leaders are committed to people
the growth of beyond their immediate work role. They
people commit to fostering an environment that
encourages personal, professional, and
spiritual growth.
10. Building Servant-leaders strive to create a sense of
Community both within and outside the
work organization.

39. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
The Importance of Leadership
“Leadership is the art of accomplishing more than
the science of management says is possible.”
- Colin Powell, U.S. Secretary of State

40. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
The Importance of Leadership
“Leadership, then, is not mobilizing others to solve
problems we already know how to solve, but to
help them confront problems that have never yet
been successfully addressed.”
- Michael Fullan from
Leading in a Culture of Change

41. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
Management Strengths vs. Leadership Strengths
Management Leadership
•Doing things right •Doing the right thing
•Rules •Values
•Goals •Vision
•Processes •People
•Facts •Feelings
•Reactive •Proactive
•Control •Commitment
•Position Power •Persuasion power
•Standardization •Innovation
•Light a fire under people •Stoke the fire within people

42. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
Public Sector Leadership Challenges
•Achieving personal balance
•Shaping organizational dynamics
•Political reality
•Unionization
•Demographic changes
•Public Involvement
•Accountability
•Transparency
•Recruitment, retention & development of staff

43. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
Critical Skills for the new Public Sector Leader
•Self-defined personal Leadership & Values
•Adaptability
•Innovation & Flexibility
•Understanding Others
•Coaching & Developing Others
•Collaboration
•Communication
•Service Orientation
•Planning & Organizing
•Decision Making & Accountability

44. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
OLD & NEW GOVERNMENT WORKPLACE MODELS
Declining Emerging
The Bureaucratic workplace The Flexible workplace
Implemented in the early 20th century to International research shows that
Eradicate patronage and create a career when “bundled”, these practices can
civil service improve performance and the quality of
work life:
-Multi-layered, rigid hierarchical structure - Flatter, more fluid organizational
form
- Top-down chain of command - Employee participation in
decisions, shared information
- Specialized division of labour, narrow job - Extensive use of work teams
descriptions
-Majority of workers performed routine - More skilled & knowledge- administrative
tasks intensive jobs
-Driven by rules and regulations - Delegated responsibility
-Training - Learning
-Vertical career mobility for a minority - Horizontal and spiral career paths
- Work environment issues not important - Healthy, supportive work
environment

45. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
“Leadership is about coping with change. Part of the reason
it has become so important in recent years is that the world
has become more competitive and volatile…doing what was
done yesterday, or doing it 5% better, is no longer a formula
for success. Major changes are more and more necessary to
survive and compete effectively in this new environment.
More change always demands more leadership.”
- John Kotter, Harvard Business Review

46. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
•Identification of Leaders
•The needs of a leader
•Politician’s vs. bureaucrats
•The new public sector leader
•E Government
•Performance Management
•Citizens’ Charter
•Community partnership

47. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
Leader Identification:
•Why is this important?

48. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
90% of politicians are…
MANAGERS!!

49. THE NEW PUBLIC SECTOR LEADER
Good Management = Personal Longevity
Good Leadership = Organizational Longevity

50. •Thank you

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