Latitudeand longitude
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Lines of latitude and longitude specify the exact location of places on Earth. Latitude lines run north and south from 0 to 90 degrees and divide the planet into northern and southern hemispheres. Longitude lines extend east and west from 0 to 180 degrees and separate the globe into eastern and western hemispheres. Together, latitude and longitude provide a precise positioning system to describe any location.
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Volcanoes form where magma reaches the Earth's surface through openings called vents. There are several types of volcanoes defined by their eruptive activity and structure. Cinder cones have short eruptions that build steep slopes from ejected cinders. Shield volcanoes have long-lasting eruptions that spread lava over large areas to form broad dome shapes like Hawaii's Mauna Loa. Composite volcanoes like Italy's Mount Etna are made of layers from violent and quiet eruptions. Volcanoes can be classified as active if currently erupting, dormant if not currently erupting but historically active, or extinct if no known eruptions in history. Most volcanism occurs along zones of
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Deep underground, rocks are under constant pressure until the strain becomes too great and the rocks suddenly break, releasing seismic waves. These waves travel outward from the hypocenter in three types - P waves which push and pull, S waves which move sides to side, and L waves which cause surfaces to bob up and down. When recorded by a seismograph, the first indication of an earthquake is typically the P waves, followed by larger S waves, with surface L waves arriving last.
Earthquakes
An earthquake is caused by the sudden movement of parts of the Earth's crust and results in shaking and trembling of the ground. There are over one million earthquakes each year, with around twenty having the potential to cause severe damage. Earthquakes are caused by faults in the Earth's crust, such as the San Andreas Fault in California where the land west of the fault moves north and the land east moves south. Underwater earthquakes can generate destructive tsunamis. The focus is the depth below the surface where the earthquake occurs, and the epicenter is directly above on the surface. Seismographs detect seismic waves that travel out from the epicenter, including fast P waves and slower S waves.
Deformation
The video discusses the different forces that act on the earth's crust and how they cause deformation through various mechanisms. Compression causes squeezing and increases density, tension causes pulling and decreases density, and shearing causes twisting. These forces result in fracturing, faulting, and folding of rocks in the crust. Fractures are cracks, faults are cracks with lateral movement, and folds are bends in rock layers. Anticlines are upward folds and synclines are downward folds. Various factors like temperature, pressure, rock type, and rate of force application determine whether rocks fault or fold when subjected to deformation.
Plate tectonics review #2
The document discusses different types of plate boundaries, including divergent boundaries where plates move apart, such as at mid-ocean ridges which form undersea mountain ranges as oceanic crust spreads away from the ridge. It also describes transform boundaries where plates slide past each other in opposite directions, such as at the San Andreas Fault in California.
Plate tectonics review
The plates are moving at a very slow rate of between one to ten centimeters per year. In some areas plates are moving together through a process called convergence, while in other areas they are moving apart. There are three main types of convergent boundaries: continental-continental, continental-oceanic, and oceanic-oceanic. At convergent boundaries, one plate dives beneath the other through subduction, which can cause volcanic activity at the surface.
Plate tectonics
The document discusses the theory of plate tectonics. It explains that the Earth's lithosphere is broken into plates that move slowly over time due to convection currents in the mantle. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent boundaries where plates move apart, convergent boundaries where they move together, and transform boundaries where plates slip past each other.
Continental drift
Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift, which suggested that the continents were once joined together in a super continent called Pangaea before drifting apart to their current locations. Wegener's theory was initially rejected because he could not explain the driving force behind continental movement. Evidence that later emerged in support of continental drift includes: matching fossil and rock formations between continents, matching climate zones in pole and equatorial regions, and magnetic pole reversal patterns in ocean floor sediments. This evidence helped prove that continents have shifted positions over time.
Sea floor spreading
1) The Mid-Ocean Ridge system circles the Earth along the ocean floor and is over 56,000 km long. It forms at divergent plate boundaries where new oceanic crust is continually being formed.
2) Scientists use sonar to map the ocean floor and study its features like the Mid-Ocean Ridge. Sonar bounces sound waves off underwater objects to image the seafloor.
3) Evidence like magnetic stripes in ocean crust and samples dug from the seafloor support the theory of sea floor spreading, where new crust forms at ridges and spreads out over time.
Earths structure
The document discusses the four main layers of the Earth - the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. It explains that the crust is the outermost layer and includes both continental and oceanic crust, with oceanic crust being denser. The mantle is below the crust and contains hot, dense rock. The outer core is a liquid layer surrounding the solid inner core, where extreme pressure causes iron and nickel atoms to remain solid.
Geologic time magazine
This document outlines the requirements for a group project where students work with a partner to create a magazine. Each person must complete two 20 point activities and one 10 point activity by certain checkpoint dates. They must also turn in their completed magazine by October 15th, which can include different formats like articles, interviews, or political cartoons, but each format can only be used once and one activity must use a longer writing format.
Geological time scale
The document summarizes the geologic time scale, which is divided into eras, periods, and epochs based on fossil evidence showing changes in Earth's organisms over its 4.56 billion year history. The largest divisions are eras, including Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and current Cenozoic. Each era is characterized by the dominant lifeforms and events of that time period. The geologic time scale helps break up Earth's history into more manageable chunks for study.
Fossils
Fossils are the remains or traces of prehistoric life found in sedimentary rocks. The type of fossil formed depends on how and where the organism died and was buried. Fossils can be unaltered remains like teeth and shells, or altered remains that have changed over time through processes like petrification or carbonization. Trace fossils provide indirect evidence of prehistoric life through things like tracks, burrows, and coprolites. Fossils are important for interpreting ancient environments and changes over time.
Relative and absolute dating
The document discusses methods for dating geological materials and events. Relative dating methods, like the law of superposition and index fossils, are used to determine the sequence of events but not calculate specific ages. Absolute dating methods, such as radiocarbon dating, are used to determine specific numerical ages by measuring radioactive decay. Radiocarbon dating works by comparing the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in once-living materials, as carbon-14 decays at a known rate. Together, relative and absolute dating methods provide information about the timing of geological events and processes.
Paleontology and uniformitariansm
Paleontology is the study of past life through the examination of plant and animal fossils. Paleontologists study fossils and the environments they formed in to piece together details about past ecosystems. The principle of uniformitarianism, first developed by James Hutton in 1788, holds that the same geological processes shaping Earth today have operated throughout its history. This theory helped establish that Earth is much older than previously believed. Relative dating methods like the law of superposition and use of index fossils allow paleontologists to determine the sequential order of geological events and changing life forms without knowing exact time periods.
Rocks review games
This document provides information about different types of rocks through a question and answer format. It discusses the key characteristics of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Some key points covered include:
- Sedimentary rocks form from the compaction and cementation of sediments and can be organic, clastic, or chemical in origin.
- Metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure near plate boundaries deep within the earth.
- Igneous rocks have either large crystals (intrusive) or small crystals (extrusive) and include rocks like basalt, granite, and obsidian.
- The impacts of mining can be reduced through land reclamation processes.
Science study guide review
This document provides information about rocks and minerals. It defines a mineral, describes how minerals are identified, and explains reclamation and its role in reducing mining impacts. It defines rocks and describes how they are classified as igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic based on their formation. Examples are given for each rock type. The rock cycle and differences between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks are explained. Common uses of rocks and the most abundant rocks in the earth's crust, granite and basalt, are stated.
Metamorphic rocks
The document discusses metamorphic rocks, which are formed from pre-existing rocks through heat, pressure, and chemical reactions typically near tectonic plate boundaries. Metamorphism can change a rock's appearance, texture, mineral content, and crystal structure, forming either foliated or non-foliated rocks. Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks include schist, slate, and gneiss, while examples of non-foliated rocks include marble and quartzite.
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. They are classified based on their composition and texture, ranging from glassy to coarse-grained. Intrusive igneous rocks form when magma cools slowly underground, resulting in large crystals, while extrusive rocks form above ground where lava cools rapidly, having small or no crystals. Common examples are granite as an intrusive rock and basalt as an extrusive rock.
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