This document provides instructions for laboratory experiments in a Physical Pharmacy-I lab course. It includes procedures for preparing solutions of different concentrations and standardizing sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid solutions. The experiments aim to teach students how to make and standardize solutions using analytical techniques like titration. Key aspects covered include molarity, normality, primary and secondary standards, and titration principles and calculations. Detailed preparation instructions are given for reagents and step-by-step procedures are outlined for each experiment.
Laboratory solution preparation by Farhang HamidFarhang Hamid
Preparation of 0.1 M Na2CO3 solution in 250 ml D.W
part per million (PPm )
Buffer solution
Preparation of 1% w/v Na2CO3 solution
Concentration units
g(sample)=M.wt(sample)*Molarity*Volume
M1×V1=M2×V2
mass percent solution=(gram(solute))/(100 grams(soluion))%
D=mass/volume≫≫mass=Denstiy ×Volume
Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a known concentration (called a titrant) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration until the reaction reaches neutralization, which is often indicated by a color change.
Laboratory solution preparation by Farhang HamidFarhang Hamid
Preparation of 0.1 M Na2CO3 solution in 250 ml D.W
part per million (PPm )
Buffer solution
Preparation of 1% w/v Na2CO3 solution
Concentration units
g(sample)=M.wt(sample)*Molarity*Volume
M1×V1=M2×V2
mass percent solution=(gram(solute))/(100 grams(soluion))%
D=mass/volume≫≫mass=Denstiy ×Volume
Titration is the slow addition of one solution of a known concentration (called a titrant) to a known volume of another solution of unknown concentration until the reaction reaches neutralization, which is often indicated by a color change.
I hope You all like it. I hope It is very beneficial for you all. I really thought that you all get enough knowledge from this presentation. This presentation is about materials and their classifications. After you read this presentation you knowledge is not as before.
Molarity (M) is the amount of a substance in a certain volume of solution. Molarity is defined as the moles of a solute per liters of a solution. Molarity is also known as the molar concentration of a solution.
Molality is a measure of the number of moles of solute in a solution corresponding to 1 kg or 1000 g of solvent.
Normality (N) is defined as the number of mole equivalents per liter of solution: normality = number of mole equivalents/1 L of solution.
I hope You all like it. I hope It is very beneficial for you all. I really thought that you all get enough knowledge from this presentation. This presentation is about materials and their classifications. After you read this presentation you knowledge is not as before.
Molarity (M) is the amount of a substance in a certain volume of solution. Molarity is defined as the moles of a solute per liters of a solution. Molarity is also known as the molar concentration of a solution.
Molality is a measure of the number of moles of solute in a solution corresponding to 1 kg or 1000 g of solvent.
Normality (N) is defined as the number of mole equivalents per liter of solution: normality = number of mole equivalents/1 L of solution.
Solutions: types and properties of solutions. Units of concentration, ideal and real
solutions. Henry’s law, distribution of solids between two immiscible liquids, distribution
law. Partition coefficient and solvent extraction.
Drug administration and pharmacy council of Bangladesh, their scope and functions.
Regulations and laws governing the practices of pharmacy (The pharmacy ordinance 1976). Control of drug advertisements, prices, patented and trade market medicine, proprietary medicine, schedules of drugs and poisons, regulation of cosmetics and poison control
Source of contamination, Air flow system: conventional, Unidirectional, laminar air flow unit, Air filtration, mechanisms: Fibrous and HEPA filters, Temperature and humidity control, Building design, construction and use, personnel, Protective clothing, cleaning, and disinfecting, commissioning test of clean and aseptic rooms, routine monitoring tests, The operation of clean aseptic room, Key factors in clean room operations.
Colligative properties of dilute solutions: lowering of vapour pressure, elevation of
boiling point, depression of freezing point and osmotic pressure including necessary
thermodynamic derivations.
Basic principles of compounding and dispensing (Prescription) MANIKImran Nur Manik
Weight, measure and units calculation for compounding and dispensing. Fundamental operation in compounding. Good pharmaceutical practices in compounding and dispensing. Containers and closures for dispensed products. Responding to prescription, labeling of dispensed medications.
To Write Well, Forget Everything Your High-School English Teacher Taught You:...Jonathan Rick
Fact: many people are bad at writing. They’re clear thinkers, but when it comes to putting pen to paper (or fingers to a keyboard), they’re all thumbs. Even among those who should know better, good writers are hard to find.
In this highly interactive workshop, we’ll help you hone your thoughts into writing that’s accessible, fluid, and energetic. To make things easy and memorable, we’ll walk through 11 myths (for example: “by writing densely, I’ll impress everyone”) and 11 rules (for example: “write the way you speak”). We conclude with a group exercise.
Learning objectives
Introduction
Conditions For Volumetric Analysis
Terms In Volumetric Analysis
Primary Standard
Methods Of Expressing Concentrations In Volumetric Analysis
Types of Titration Methods
Classification Of Titrimetric Or Volumetric Methods
Conclusion
References
Standardization of Acids and bases.
2. Determination of pKa and pKb values
3. Preparation of solutions of different pH & buffer capacities.
4. Determination of phase diagram of binary systems.
Determination of distribution coefficients.
6. Determination of molecular weight by Victor Meyer’s Method.
7. Determination of heats of solutions by measuring solubility as a function of temperature
(Van’t Hoff equation.)
Chemistry Lab Report on standardization of acid and bases. Karanvir Sidhu
I hope it might be helpful to you.
Email me on sidhu.s.karanvir@gmail.com to see more work.
Follow me at Linkedln
https://www.linkedin.com/in/karanvir-sidhu-b6995864/
A. Qualitative analysis of metal ions and acid radicals:
Na+, K+, Ca+2, Ag+, Mn+4, Fe+2, Fe+3, Co+2, Mg+2, Al+3, Cu+2 and acid radicals CO3,
halides, Citrate
SO4-2, NO3-, SO3-2, etc.
B. Identification of inorganic drugs in their formulation:
1. Ca+2, from supplied preparations
2. Fe+2 from supplied preparations
3. Al+3 from supplied preparations
4. Mg+2 from supplied preparations
5. K+ from supplied reparations
6. Na+ from supplied preparations
C. Conversion of different water insoluble or sparingly soluble drugs into water soluble
forms:
1. Na/ K – salicylate from salicylic acid
2. Na/ K – benzoate from benzoic acid
3. Na/ K – citrate from citric acid
Plants in complimentary and traditional systems of medicine MANIKanikImran Nur Manik
Plants in complimentary and traditional systems of medicine: Introduction-different types of
alternative systems of treatments (e.g. Ayurvedic, Unani and Homeopathic medicine). Contribution
of traditional drugs to modern medicines. Details of some common indigenous traditional drugs:
Punarnava, Vashaka, Anantamul, Arjuna, Chirata, Picrorhiga, Kalomegh, Amla, Asoka, Bahera,
Haritaki, Tulsi, Neem, Betel nut, Joan, Karela, Shajna, Carrot, Bael, Garlic, Jam and Madar.
Crude drugs: A general view of their origin, distributions, cultivation, collection, drying and
storage, commerce and quality control.
a) Classification of drugs.
b) Preparation of drugs for commercial market
c) Evaluation of crude drugs.
d) Drug adulteration.
Carbohydrate and related compounds: Sugars and sugar containing drugs. Sucrose,
dextrose, glucose, fructose etc. Polysaccharides and polysaccharide containing drugs,
Starches, dextrins etc. Gums and mucilages, tragacanth, acacia, sterculia, sodium
alginate, agar and cellulose.
Volatile oils and related terpenoids-Methods of obtaining volatile oils,
chemistry, their medicinal and commercial uses, biosynthesis of some important
volatile oils used as drugs.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Maxilla, Mandible & Hyoid Bone & Clinical Correlations by Dr. RIG.pptx
lab manual MANIK
1. Laboratory Manual
Course Code: PHARM 1206
Prepared By
Md. Imran Nur Manik
Lecturer
Department of Pharmacy
Northern University Bangladesh
2. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 0
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Sl. No. Date Name of the experiment Page No.
01. Preparation of solutions of different concentrations. 01 – 02
02.
Standardization of NaOH solution by Potassium Hydrogen
Phthalate (KHP). 03 – 05
03. Standardization of HCl Solution by NaOH Solution. 06 – 07
04. Determination of pKa value of weak acid. 08 – 10
05. Preparation of constant pH buffer. 11 – 12
General References ( Further reading) & Some commonly used Lab Equipment 12Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
3. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 1
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Experiment No. 01 Date:
Name of the experiment: Preparation of solutions of different concentrations.
Principle:
The concentration of a solution is defined as: the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution.
The concentration of a solution can be expressed as molarity, molality normality, mole fraction etc.
Molarity (M): Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved per liter of solution. It can be mathematically
expressed as,
solutionofLitre
soluteofMoles
)MMolarity(
Example: Calculate the molar concentration of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4; MW=142 gm).That contains 2.8 gm of
Na2SO4 in 1500mL solution.
SOLUTION:
)i.........(..........
litre)V(in
n
Mor,
solutionofLitre
soluteofMoles
)MMolarity(That,KnowWe
Here, Molecular mass of Na2SO4 = (232 + 32 + 164) gm=142 gm
Calculation of moles (n) of Na2SO4:
142 gm Na2SO4= 1mol
2.8 gm Na2SO4= 142
8.2
mol= 0.01972 mol
Calculation of volume (V) in litres:
1000 millilitre =1litre
1500 millilitres = 1000
1500
litre =1.5 litre
Calculation of Molarity:
mole/L0.01315
1.5
0.01972
M
V
n
Mget,we)i(equationtheinvaluesthesePutting
Thus the solution is 0.01315 M
Problem: Calculate the amount required to prepare 250 mL, 0.25M HCl. Purity of acid is 32%.
Normality (N): Normality is the number of gram equivalent (eq.) weights of solute (solu.) per liter of solution.
Equivalent mass (Eq. M.)/Gram equivalent Wight: Equivalent mass of a substance can be calculated
by dividing its molar mass per the number of active units in one molecule of this substance (k) thus:
The active unit in the acid-base reactions is the number of hydrogen ions liberated by a single molecule of an acid
or reacted with a single molecule of a base.
For e.g. 1 mole of NaOH (m.wt. = 40) can combine with 1 mole of hydrogen ion, therefore the equivalent weight
of NaOH is 40÷1=40 gm. Thus the concentration of 1N NaOH is same as 1M NaOH.
On the other hand H2SO4 has two ionisable hydrogen atoms; its equivalent mass will be, g49
2
98
Eq.M.
Thus, the concentration of 1M H2SO4 is same as 2N H2SO4.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
4. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 2
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Relationship between Normality and Molality
Relationship between molarity and normality for the same solute in the same solution is expressed by the
following equation
N=nM
Where, N=normality M=Molarity and n=Valence
Problem: Calculate the amount required to prepare 0.1N H2SO4.Having density of 1.19 g/mL and 98%
purity.
Concentration can also be calculated by dilution method when the concentration and volume of one of the
two reactants is known.
Dilution: It is the addition of solvent to decrease the concentration of solute. The solution volume changes, but
the amount of solute remains constant.
M1V1 = M2V2
Initial values Final values
Problem: How to made 100 mL 0.1M NaCl from 5M NaCl solution?
Calculation:
All calculations are to be done as per the solutions to be made, needed for the experiment.
Apparatus:
1. Electrical balance
2. Pipette and pipette filler
3. Funnel
4. Volumetric flask
5. Beaker
6. Measuring cylinder
7. Spatula
8. Stirrer
9. Permanent marker
Chemicals/Reagents:
Write all the reagents required to prepare the solutions (as per the solutions to be made for the experiment)
Experimental procedures: (Specimen)
Preparation of 1M 50 mL NaOH solution:
1. Weigh out accurately W gm (To be calculated) of NaOH.
2. Transfer it to 50 mL volumetric flask.
3. At first completely dissolve it with small volume of distilled water (DW).
4. Finally adjust the volume up to the 50 mL mark with DW Q.S.
Preparation of 1N 100 mL Na2CO3 solution:
1. Weigh out accurately W gm
(To be calculated) of Na2CO3.
2. Transfer it to 100 mL volumetric flask.
3. At first completely dissolve it with small
volume of distilled water (DW).
4. Finally adjust the volume up to the
mark with DW Q.S.
Fig: Preparation of Solution.
Precautions:
Comments:
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
5. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 3
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Experiment No. 02 Date:
Name of the experiment: Standardization of NaOH solution by Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate (KHP).
Terminologies Used in Titrimetric Analysis
The term 'titrimetric analysis' refers to quantitative chemical analysis. It is carried out by determining the
volume of a solution of accurately known concentration, required to react quantitatively with a measured volume
of a solution of the substance to be determined. The solution of accurately known strength is called the standard
solution.
In titrimetric analysis the reagent of known concentration is called the titrant and the substance being
titrated is termed the titrand or analyte.
The process of adding the standard solution until the reaction is just complete is termed a titration, and
the substance to be determined is titrated. The point at which this occurs is called the equivalence point or the
theoretical (or stoichiometric) end point.
The completion of the titration is detected more usually, by the addition of an auxiliary reagent, known
as an indicator. After the reaction between the substance and the standard solution is practically complete, the
indicator should give a clear visual change (either a colour change or the formation of turbidity) in the liquid
being titrated. The point at which this occurs is called the end point of the titration.
Principle
In titrimetry, chemicals used as reference solutions known as primary standards or secondary standards.
Primary Standards
A primary standard is a compound of sufficient purity from which a standard solution can be prepared by
direct weighing of a quantity of it, followed by dilution to give a defined volume of solution. The solution
produced is called a primary standard solution.
A primary standard should satisfy the following requirements.
1. It must be easy to obtain, purify, dry (preferably at 110-120°C), and to preserve in a pure state.
(This requirement is not usually met by hydrated substances, since it is difficult to remove surface moisture
completely without effecting partial decomposition.)
2. It should be unaltered in air during weighing; that means, it should not be hygroscopic, oxidised by air, or
affected by carbon dioxide.
3. It should maintain an unchanged composition during storage.
4. It should be capable of being tested for impurities by qualitative and other tests of known sensitivity.
(The total amount of impurities should not, in general, exceed 0.01-0.02%)
5. It should be readily soluble under the conditions in which it is employed.
6. The reaction with the standard solution should be stoichiometric and practically instantaneous.
7. The titration error should be negligible, or easy to determine accurately by experiment.
In practice, an ideal primary standard is difficult to obtain, and a compromise between the above ideal
requirements is usually necessary.
The substances commonly employed as primary standards are indicated below:
(a) Acid-base reactions: Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3); sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7),
potassium hydrogen phthalate (C8H5O4K), constant boiling point hydrochloric acid, potassium hydrogeniodate
KH(IO3)2, benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) etc.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
6. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 4
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
(b) Complex formation reactions: Silver, Silver nitrate (AgNO3), Sodium chloride (NaCl), various metals
(e.g. Spectroscopically pure Zinc, Magnesium, Copper, and Manganese) and salts, depending upon the reaction
used.
(c) Precipitation reactions: Silver, Silver nitrate (AgNO3), Sodium chloride(NaCl), Potassium chloride (KCl),
and Potassium bromide(KBr) (prepared from potassium bromate).
(d) Oxidation-reduction reactions: Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), Potassium bromate (KBrO3),
Potassium iodate (KIO3), Potassium hydrogeniodate KH(IO3)2, Sodium oxalate (Na2C2O4),
Arsenic(III) oxide (As2O3), and pure Iron.
Secondary Standards
Solutions that are prepared by standardisation against a primary standard are referred to as secondary standards.
It follows that, a secondary standard solution is a solution in which the concentration of dissolved solute has not
been determined from the weight of the compound dissolved, but by the reaction (titration) of a volume of the
solution, against a measured volume of a primary standard solution.
Examples: Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7.10H2O , Copper sulphate Cu2SO4.5H2O etc.
In the present experiment, NaOH solution is to be used secondary standard chemical and needs to be
standardized by the primary standard chemicals. Here the primary standard chemical is KHP.
This is a 1:1 titration therefore, one mole of base, will titrate one mole of acid.
The end point of the solution would be determined by an indicator, phenolphthalein.
Reaction:
+Na+, K+
Phenolphthalein: Phenolphthalein exists in two tautomeric forms: (i) the benzenoid form which is yellow and
present in basic solution; and (ii) the quinonoid form which is pink and present in acid solution.
Fig. Two forms of Phenolphthalein.
Apparatus:
1. Electrical balance
2. Spatula
3. Volumetric flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Burette
6. Pipette and pipette filler
7. Conical flask
8. Beaker
9. Funnel
Chemicals / Reagents:
1. 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
2. 0.1 N Potassium hydrogen phthalate (C8H5O4K)
3. 0.5% Phenolphthalein indicator
4. Distilled Water
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
7. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 5
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Calculation (Sample): Full calculations required to make the reagents, for the experiment must be written down
Gram Equivalent weight of NaOH = (40÷ 1)= 40 gm
250 mL 0.1N NaOH = {(40250 0.1) ÷1000} gm = 1gm (for 100% pure NaOH)
Gram Equivalent weight of KC8H5O4 = ( 204.22÷ 1) gm = 204.22 gm
50 mL 0.1N KHC8H4O4 = {(204.22500.1) ÷1000} gm = 1.021 gm (for 100% pure KHC8H4O4)
Reagents and their preparations:
1. 0.1 N 50 mL Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate solution: Take 1.021gm Potassium hydrogen phthalate
(KHP) in a 50 mL volumetric flask; now dissolve it completely with small portion of DW. Finally add distilled
water Q.S. to make 50 mL solution.
2. 0.1 N 250 mL NaOH solution: Take 1 gm NaOH in a 250 mL volumetric flask. Completely dissolve
it with small portion of DW (e.g.125 mL). Finally adjusted the volume up to the 250 mL mark by Q.S. of distilled
water.
3. 0.5% 100 mL Phenolphthalein solution: 50 mL Ethanol+ 0.5 gm Phenolphthalein+ 50 mL DW.
Procedures:
1. Standardization of NaOH solution by Potassium Hydrogen Phthalate (KHP) solution:
i. Fill the burette with the prepared 0.1 N NaOH solution.
ii. Take 10 mL standard 0.1N KHP (C8H5O4K) solution in a conical flask.
iii. Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator in the acid solution and titrate it with the NaOH solution,
until the colour of the acid solution changes from colourless to faint pink.
iv. Perform another two titrations and calculate the result.
Table-1: Data for the standardization of NaOH solution:
No. of
observations
Volume of KHP
(V1 mL)
Volume of NaOH solution
(mL)
Difference
(FBR-IBR)
(mL)
Mean
volume
(V2 mL)IBR FBR
1 10
2 10
3 10
2. Calculation of strength of NaOH solution:
We know that, V1S1 = V2S2 Here, Volume of KHP, V1 = 10 mL
S2 =
2
11
V
SV Strength of KHP,S1 = 0.1 N
Volume of NaOH, V2 = mL (Mean)
= Strength of NaOH, S2= ?
= N
Result: The strength of NaOH= N.
Precautions:
Comments:
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
8. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 6
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Experiment No. 03 Date:
Name of the experiment: Standardization of HCl Solution by NaOH Solution.
Principle
An acid-base titration involves the addition of a titrant solution to an analyte solution. In titrimetry, chemicals used
as reference solutions known as primary standards or secondary standards.
A primary standard is a reagent that is extremely pure, stable, has no water of hydration, and has a high
molecular weight. A secondary standard solution refers to a solution that has its concentration measured by
titration with a primary standard solution.
The secondary standard chemicals are not absolute pure and may contain some impurities that come during their
synthesis. Therefore the secondary standard chemical should standardize by using the primary pure chemicals.
In the present experiment, NaOH solution is to be used secondary standard chemical and needs to be
standardized by the primary standard chemicals. Here the primary standard chemical is Oxalic acid. After being
standardized by the Oxalic acid, NaOH is to be used for the standardization of HCl.
The end point of the solution will be determined by an indicator, phenolphthalein.
Reaction:
1. H2C2O4 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) ⇌ Na2C2O4 (aq) + 2H2O (l)
2. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ⇌H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
Apparatus:
1. Electrical balance
2. Spatula
3. Volumetric flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Burette
6. Pipette and pipette filler
7. Conical flask
8. Beaker
9. Funnel
Chemicals / Reagents:
1. 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
2. 0.1 N Oxalic acid (dihydrate) [H2C2O4.2H2O]
3. 0.1 N Hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution
4. 0.5% Phenolphthalein indicator
5. Distilled Water
Calculation (Sample): Full calculations required to make the reagents, for the experiment must be written
down.
Gram equivalent weight of H2C2O4 = (126.08 ÷ 2) gm = 63.040 gm
100 mL 0.1N H2C2O4 = {(63.0401000.1)÷ ÷1000 }gm = Y gm (for 100% pure H2C2O4)
Reagents and their preparations:
1. 0.1 N 100 mL Oxalic acid solution: Completely dissolve 0.636 gm of Oxalic acid (99%) in a 100 mL
volumetric flask with a small volume of DW. Finally adjust the volume up to 100 mL mark by adding
distilled water Q.S.
2. 0.1 N 1000 mL NaOH solution: Completely dissolve 4.12 gm of NaOH (97%) in a1000 mL volumetric
flask with a small volume of DW. Finally adjust the volume up to 1000 mL mark by adding distilled water
Q.S.
3. 0.1N 100 mL HCl solution: Take 1.14 mL of HCl (32%) and completely dissolve it in 100 mL
volumetric flask in 100 mL DW.
4. 0.5% 100 mL Phenolphthalein solution: 50 mL Ethanol+ 0.5 g Phenolphthalein+ 50 mL DW.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
9. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 7
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Procedures:
1. Standardization of NaOH solution by Oxalic acid Solution:
a) Fill the burette with the prepared 0.1 N NaOH solution.
b) Take 10 mL standard 0.1N Oxalic acid solution in a conical flask.
c) Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator in the acid solution and titrate it with the NaOH solution,
until the colour of acid solution changes from colourless to faint pink.
d) Perform another two titrations and calculate the result.
Table-1: Data for standardization of NaOH solution:
No. of
observations
Volume of Oxalic acid
(V1 mL)
Volume of NaOH solution
(mL)
Difference
(FBR-IBR)
(mL)
Mean
volume
(V2 mL)IBR FBR
1 10
2 10
3 10
2. Calculation of strength of NaOH solution:
We know that, V1S1 = V2S2 Here, Volume of Oxalic acid, V1 = 10 mL
S2 =
2
11
V
SV Strength of Oxalic Acid, S1= 0.1 N
Volume of NaOH, V2 = mL (Mean)
= Strength of NaOH, S2 = ?
= N
The strength of NaOH= N.
3. Standardization of HCl solution by NaOH solution:
a) Fill the burette with the standardized NaOH solution.
b) Take 10 mL prepared 0.1N HCl solution in a conical flask.
c) Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator in the acid solution and titrate it with the NaOH solution,
until the colour of acid solution changes from colourless to faint pink.
d) Perform another two titrations and calculate the result.
Table-2: Data for standardization of HCl solution:
No. of
observations
Volume of HCl
(V1 mL)
Volume of NaOH solution
(mL)
Difference
(FBR-IBR)
(mL)
Mean volume
(V2 mL)
IBR FBR
1 10
2 10
3 10
4. Calculation of strength of HCl solution:
We know that, V1S1 = V2S2 Here, Volume of HCl, V1 = 10 mL
S1 = 1
22
V
SV
Strength of HCl, S1 = ?
Volume of NaOH, V2 = mL (Mean)
= Strength of NaOH, S2 = N (Known Earlier)
= N
Result: The strength of HCl= N.
Precautions:
Comments:
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
10. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 8
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Experiment No. 04 Date:
Name of the experiment: Determination of pKa value of weak acid.
Principle
A buffer solution is one which resists (or buffers) a change in its pH. If acid is added then, within reason, the pH
does not fall; if base is added, the pH does not rise. Buffers are usually composed of a mixture of weak acids or
weak bases and their salts and function best at a pH equal to the pKa of the acid or base involved in the buffer.
The equation that predicts the behaviour of buffers is known as the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation
(named after chemists Lawrence Joseph Henderson and Karl Albert Hasselbalch). It is derived as follows, by
considering a weak acid that ionises in solution.
[Acid]
[Salt]
logpHpKaor,
[Acid]
[Salt]
logpKapH
Where, pKa=–log Ka; and Ka=Decomposition constant of acid.
An example of a buffer is a mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate, which ionises and acts as follows:
CH3COOH⇌CH3COO– +H+
CH3COO–Na+⇌CH3COO– +Na+
Apparatus:
1. Electrical balance
2. Spatula
3. Volumetric flask
4. Measuring cylinder
5. Burette
6. Pipette and pipette filler Fig. Mechanism of Buffer action of an acid buffer.
7. Conical flask
8. Beaker
9. Funnel
Chemicals / Reagents:
1. 0.1 N Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
2. 1% Acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution
3. 0.1 N Oxalic acid (dihydrate)[ H2C2O4.2H2O]
4. 0.5% Phenolphthalein indicator
5. Distilled Water
Calculation: Full calculations required to make the reagents, for the experiment must be written down.
Preparation of Reagents:
A. 1% 100 mL Acetic Acid Solution: Take 1 mL glacial acetic acid (100%) in a 100 mL volumetric flask, and
then adjust the volume up to 100 mL mark by adding distilled water.
B.0.1 N 1000 mL NaOH Solution: Completely dissolve 4.12 gm NaOH (97%) pellets in a 1000 mL volumetric
flask at first with a small portion of DW, and finally adjust the volume up to the mark by adding DW Q.S.
C.0.1 N 100 mL Oxalic Acid Solution: Completely dissolve 0.636 gm oxalic acid (99%) in a 100 mL volumetric
flask at first with a small portion of DW, and finally make the volume up to mark by adding distilled water Q.S.
D.0.5% Phenolphthalein: 50 mL Ethanol + 0.5 gm phenolphthalein + 50 mL distilled water.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
11. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 9
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Procedures:
1. Standardization of NaOH solution by Oxalic acid Solution:
a) Fill the burette with the prepared 0.1 N NaOH solution.
b) Take 10 mL standard 0.1N Oxalic acid solution in a conical flask.
c) Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator in the acid solution and titrate it with the NaOH solution,
until the colour of the acid solution changes from colourless to faint pink.
d) Perform another two titrations and calculate the result.
Table-1: Data for standardization of NaOH solution:
No. of
observations
Volume of Oxalic acid
(V1 mL)
Volume of NaOH solution
(mL)
Difference
(FBR-IBR)
(mL)
Mean
volume
(V2 mL)IBR FBR
1 10
2 10
3 10
2. Calculation of strength of NaOH solution:
We know that, V1S1 = V2S2 Here, Volume of Oxalic acid,V1 = 10 mL
S2 =
2
11
V
SV Strength of Oxalic acid, S1 = 0.1 N
Volume of NaOH, V2 = mL (Mean)
= Strength of NaOH, S2= ?
= N
The strength of NaOH = N.
3. Determination of the strength of CH3COOH solution by NaOH solution:
a) Fill the burette with the standardized NaOH solution.
b) Take 10 mL prepared Acetic acid (CH3COOH) solution in a conical flask.
c) Add 1-2 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator in the acid solution and titrate it with the NaOH solution,
until the colour of the acid solution changes from colourless to faint pink.
d) Perform another two titrations and calculate the result.
Table-2: Data for standardization of CH3COOH solution:
No. of
observations
Volume of CH3COOH
(V1 mL)
Volume of NaOH solution
(mL)
Difference
(FBR-IBR)
(mL)
Mean
volume
(V2 mL)IBR FBR
1 10
2 10
3 10
4. Calculation of strength of Acetic acid solution:
We know that, V1S1 = V2S2 Here, Volume of CH3COOH, V1 = 10 mL
S1 =
1
22
V
SV Strength of CH3COOH, S1 = ?
Volume of NaOH, V2 = mL (Mean)
= Strength of NaOH, S2 = N (Known Earlier)
= N
The strength of CH3COOH = N.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
12. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 10
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
5. Determination of pH of Buffer solution:
1) Take 40 mL 1% Acetic acid solution and 20 mL standardized NaOH solution in a 100 mL beaker and
mix them very well.
2) Then measure the pH of the buffer solution using a pH meter.
The pH of the solution=
6. Determination of pKa of the solution:
Now calculate pKa value is by the following equation,
volumeTotal
COOHCHofStrengthCOOHCHRemainingofVolume
VolumeTotal
NaOHofStrengthNaOHofVolume
logpHpKa
getw)equation(1thefromThus
VolumeTotal
COOHCHofStrengthCOOHCHRemainingofVolume
[Acid]Acid,ofionconcentratexperimentpresenttheIn
VolumeTotal
COOHCHofStrengthCOOHCHofVolume
[Acid]Acid,ofionconcentrattheAnd
VolumeTotal
NaOHofStrengthNaOHofVolume
[Salt]Salt,ofionconcentrattheHere,
)1..(..............................................................................................................
[Acid]
[Salt]
logpHpKa
33
33
33
e
Result: The pKa value of the solution =
Precautions:
Comments:
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
13. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 11
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Experiment No. 05 Date:
Name of the experiment: Preparation of constant pH buffer.
Principle:
A solution which resists changes in pH when small quantities of an acid or an alkali are added to it, is called
buffer solution. Most of the buffer solutions usually consist of a mixture of weak acid and one of its salts or a
weak base and one of its salts. The resistance to a change in pH is known as buffer action. A buffer solution
contains large and equal concentrations of an acid and its conjugate base. The pH of this solution is
approximately equal to the pKa of the acid. Addition of small amounts of acid or base results in the mopping up
or the release of protons by the conjugate base or the acid as necessary, which keeps the solution pH constant.
TYPES OF BUFFERS
Buffers are classified into following types
1. Simple Buffers:
Simple buffers are categorized into three different ways.
A) Salts of weak acid and a weak base
Example: Ammonium acetate-CH3COONH4, Ammonium cyanide-NH4CN.
B) Proteins and amino acids.
C) A mixture of an acid salt and a normal salt formed from polybasic acid
Example: Na2HPO4 and Na3PO4
2. Mixed Buffers
Acidic Buffer: A solution of weak acid and its salt with strong base.
Example: CH3COOH +CH3COONa, H2CO3 +Na2CO3
Basic Buffer: A solution of weak base and its salt with strong acid.
Example: NH4OH+NH4Cl, NH4OH+NH4NO3
3. Natural Buffers
A solution is said to be naturally buffered if it contains buffering compounds
as it exists in nature. Blood is an example of a naturally buffered solution.
Fig.Citric acid monohydrate
Fig. pH meter
Apparatus:
1. Electrical balance
2. Spatula
3. Volumetric flask
4. Conical flask
5. Beaker
6. Measuring cylinder
7. pH meter
8. Stirrer
Chemicals/Reagents:
1. 0.1 M Na-Acetate (CH3COONa) solution
2. Citric acid (monohydrate)
3. Distilled Water
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik
14. Manual: Physical Pharmacy-I Lab
Prepared By: Md. Imran Nur Manik Page 12
Lecturer; Department of Pharmacy; Northern University Bangladesh.
Calculation: Full calculations required to make the reagents, for the experiment must be written down.
Preparation of Reagents:
0.1 M 100 mL CH3COONa Solution: Completely dissolve 1.374 gm CH3COONa (99%) in a 100 mL volumetric
flask with a small amount of DW. Later on adjust the volume up to the mark by adding distilled water Q.S.
Procedures:
1. Take 100 mL 0.1 M CH3COONa solution in a 250 mL beaker.
2. Carefully submerge the detector of pH meter into the CH3COONa solution.
3. Take the reading of pH meter.
4. Now add crystalline citric acid (C6H8O7.H2O) to the CH3COONa solution with continuous stirring by
the stirrer.
5. Carefully submerge the detector of pH meter into the solution.
6. Take the reading of pH meter simultaneously while adding citric acid.
7. Continue the step 4 until the pH is adjusted to 6 or above.
Table-1: Data for pH adjustment:
No. of observation pH of CH3COONa pH of final solution
1
Result: The pH value of the solution=
Precautions:
Comments:
General References:
1. G H Jeffery, J Bassett, J Mendham, and
R C Denney: Vogel's textbook of
quantitative chemical analysis, 5th ed,
Longman Group UK Limited, Longman
Scientific & Technical, 1989.
2. Arun Bahl, B.S Bahl, and G.D Tuli:
Essentials of Physical Chemistry, Multi
color edition, New Delhi, S.Chand and
Company Limited, 2011.
3. Donald Cairns: Essentials of
Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Third edition,
Pharmaceutical Press, UK, 2008.
Md.
Imran
Nur
Manik