This document provides instructions for preparing solutions of different concentrations and safely handling chemical solutions in the laboratory. It discusses key topics such as defining different types of solutions, measuring chemicals accurately, preparing stock and diluted solutions using various methods, common units for expressing concentration like molarity and percentage, and guidelines for proper labeling, storage, and disposal of chemical solutions. Safety precautions for working with chemicals and maintaining a clean work area are also outlined.
It is a quantitative analysis in which amount of substance is determined in the solution. For this purpose, we titrate the solution against the other solution whose concentration is known
Practical work
Titration
Types
Titrant
titrand
Procedure
Calculation
Precaution
It is a quantitative analysis in which amount of substance is determined in the solution. For this purpose, we titrate the solution against the other solution whose concentration is known
Practical work
Titration
Types
Titrant
titrand
Procedure
Calculation
Precaution
this section helps students how to prepare solution for each laboratory activities. specially life life science fields such as biotechnology, biology, chemistry and medical laboratory
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Laboratory solution preparation by Farhang HamidFarhang Hamid
Preparation of 0.1 M Na2CO3 solution in 250 ml D.W
part per million (PPm )
Buffer solution
Preparation of 1% w/v Na2CO3 solution
Concentration units
g(sample)=M.wt(sample)*Molarity*Volume
M1×V1=M2×V2
mass percent solution=(gram(solute))/(100 grams(soluion))%
D=mass/volume≫≫mass=Denstiy ×Volume
The aim of this experiment is to standardize 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) which is an unstandard substance, by using standardized Hydrochloric acid (Na2CO3).
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A brief introduction to the titration technique used to know the concentration of unknown solutions. different types, indicators used and its application in foods and nutrition is also described.
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this section helps students how to prepare solution for each laboratory activities. specially life life science fields such as biotechnology, biology, chemistry and medical laboratory
A presentation outlining the method of colorimetry & spectroscopy. Also detailed information regarding spectrophotometer, calculation of absorbance and transmittance according to Beer & Lambert's law
Laboratory solution preparation by Farhang HamidFarhang Hamid
Preparation of 0.1 M Na2CO3 solution in 250 ml D.W
part per million (PPm )
Buffer solution
Preparation of 1% w/v Na2CO3 solution
Concentration units
g(sample)=M.wt(sample)*Molarity*Volume
M1×V1=M2×V2
mass percent solution=(gram(solute))/(100 grams(soluion))%
D=mass/volume≫≫mass=Denstiy ×Volume
The aim of this experiment is to standardize 0.1N Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) which is an unstandard substance, by using standardized Hydrochloric acid (Na2CO3).
Titration - principle, working and applicationSaloni Shroff
A brief introduction to the titration technique used to know the concentration of unknown solutions. different types, indicators used and its application in foods and nutrition is also described.
Crystallization is a separation process very commonly used in the industry of many different materials, from commercially very common chemicals to very specific ones. It also plays an important role in the pharmaceutical industry, as more than 90% of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) are synthesized as a crystalline product. Crystallization may have a significant direct and indirect influence on the quality of a product; therefore, it is one of the most important purification and separation methods in the production of APIs.
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Standardization of Acids and bases.
2. Determination of pKa and pKb values
3. Preparation of solutions of different pH & buffer capacities.
4. Determination of phase diagram of binary systems.
5. Determination of distribution coefficients.
6. Determination of molecular weight by Victor Meyer’s Method.
7. Determination of heats of solutions by measuring solubility as a function of
temperature (Van’t Hoff equation.)
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https://youtu.be/gQu8HakrxUY?si=ySWG55p77NLQqkZL
Dilute Vs Concentrated Solution
Percentage Expression
Molarity
Normality
Molality
Mole Fraction
Part per million
Dilution of Solution.
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Physical Pharmacy-I lab + Data Sheet
1. Standardization of Acids and bases.
2. Determination of pKa and pKb values
3. Preparation of solutions of different pH & buffer capacities.
4. Determination of phase diagram of binary systems.
5. Determination of distribution coefficients.
6. Determination of molecular weight by Victor Meyer’s Method.
7. Determination of heats of solutions by measuring solubility as a function of
temperature (Van’t Hoff equation.)
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The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
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Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs molecules having approximately 18-25 nucleotides, they are present in both plants and animals genomes. MiRNAs have diverse spatial expression patterns and regulate various developmental metabolisms, stress responses and other physiological processes. The dynamic gene expression playing major roles in phenotypic differences in organisms are believed to be controlled by miRNAs. Mutations in regions of regulatory factors, such as miRNA genes or transcription factors (TF) necessitated by dynamic environmental factors or pathogen infections, have tremendous effects on structure and expression of genes. The resultant novel gene products presents potential explanations for constant evolving desirable traits that have long been bred using conventional means, biotechnology or genetic engineering. Rice grain quality, yield, disease tolerance, climate-resilience and palatability properties are not exceptional to miRN Asmutations effects. There are new insights courtesy of high-throughput sequencing and improved proteomic techniques that organisms’ complexity and adaptations are highly contributed by miRNAs containing regulatory networks. This article aims to expound on how rice miRNAs could be driving evolution of traits and highlight the latest miRNA research progress. Moreover, the review accentuates miRNAs grey areas to be addressed and gives recommendations for further studies.
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Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
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Preparation of solutions.pptx
1. Weighing & Preparation of
Solutions of Different
strengths & their Dilution
AND
Handling Techniques of
Solutions
1
2. 2
1. Solutions
2. Measuring Chemicals
3. Different chemical concentrations
4. Dilution of stock solutions
5. Labelling
6. Lab safety
7. Conclusions
3. • Solution uniform homogenous mixture of two
or more substances i.e, solute and solvent.
Solution= solute + solvent
• Standard solution: very precise solution, usually to 3-4 significant
figures, used in quantitative analysis or an analytical procedure.
• Saturated solution: a solution that contains the maximum
amount of a particular a solute that will dissolve at that
temperature
• Supersaturated solution: a solution that contains more solute
than equilibrium condition allow; it is unstable & the solute may
precipitate upon slight agitation or addition of single crystal
3
4. Preparing Solutions
Solutions of known concentration can be prepared in a number of
different ways depending on the nature of the analyte and/or the
concentration required:
• Weighing out a solid material of known purity, dissolving it in a
suitable solvent and diluting to the required volume
• Weighing out a liquid of known purity, dissolving it in a suitable
solvent and diluting to the required volume
• Diluting a solution previously prepared in the laboratory
• Diluting a solution from a chemical supplier.
4
5. Weight Measurements
Basic protocol 1: measuring mass using a top-loading Balance
1. Turn on balance and wait for display to read 0.0 g.
2. Place weighing vessel on the balance pan (e.g., creased weighing
paper, weigh boat)
3. Press tare button so that display reads 0.0g.
4. Gently add the substance being weighed to the weighing sample.
5. Record mass.
6. Remove weighed sample.
7. Clean spills off balance with brush or absorbent laboratory tissue.
Discard any disposable weighing vessel. 5
6. Contd...
• Basic protocol 2: measuring Mass using an analytical
Balance
1. Turn on balance and wait for display to read 0.0000 g.
2. Check the level indicator & do not lean on table while
weighing.
3. Place weighing vessel on the balance pan (e.g., creased
weighing paper, weigh boat)
4. Close the sliding doors & wait for stability light
indicator, indicating that the weight is stable.
5. Press tare button so that display reads 0.0g.
6. Gently add the substance being weighed to the
weighing sample.
7. Record mass.
8. Remove weighed sample.
9. Clean spills off balance with brush or absorbent
laboratory tissue. Discard any disposable weighing
vessel
6
11. Common P r a c t i c a l Units f o r
Reporting Concentration
Name Units Symbol
Molarity Moles of solute / litres of solution M
Normality Number of EWs solute / Litre of solution N
molality Moles of solute / Kg of solvent m
Weight % g of solute / 100 g of solution % w/w
Volume % mL of solute / 100 mL of solution % v/v
Weight-to-Volume % g of solute / 100 mL of solution % w/v
•Weight per unit volume e.g., g/L, mg/ml
•Parts per million(ppm) or ppb
11
12. 12
1. Molar solutions
• Molarity is number of moles of a solute that are dissolved per liter of
total solution.
• A 1 M solution contains 1 mole of solute per liter total volume.
Example:
A 1M solution of H2SO4 contains 98.06 g of sulfuric acid in 1 liter of
total solution.
"mole" is an expression of amount
"molarity" is an expression of concentration.
13. Contd..
13
• "Millimolar", mM, millimole/L.
– A millimole is 1/1000 of a mole.
• "Micromolar", µM, µmole/L.
– A µmole is 1/1,000,000 of amole.
HOW MUCH SOLUTE IS NEEDED FOR A SOLUTION OF APARTICULAR MOLARITY
AND VOLUME?
(g solute ) X (mole) X (L) = g solute needed
1 mole L
or
FW X molarity x volume = g solute needed
14. TO MAKE SOLUTION OF GIVEN
MOLARITY AND VOLUME
1. Find the FW of the solute, usually from label.
2. Determine the molarity desired.
3. Determine the volume desired.
4. Determine how much solute is necessary by
using the formula.
5. Weigh out the amount of solute.
6. Dissolve the solute in less than the desired
final volume of solvent.
7. Place the solution in a volumetric flask or
graduated cylinder. Add solvent until exactly
the required volume is reached, Bring To
Volume, BTV. 14
15. 15
2. Normal Solutions
• Normality is defined as the gram Eq.Wt. of the solute
per L of the solvent.
1N sol. = 1 EW solute / 1L of sol.
• Conc. Of acids and alkalis are usually expressed in
this unit.
• gram Eq.Wt. is the M.W divided by the no. of H+ or
OH- ions released from 1 molecule of the acid or
base, respectively in solutions.
Eq. Wt. = MW of the substance / replaceable no. of H+ or OH-
16. 16
Example:
1N Sulphuric Acid
M.W of H2SO4 = 98 g
Each molecule of acid releases 2 H+ ions in solutions.
Eq. Wt. = 98/2
= 49
So, 1L of 1N H2SO4 solution contains 49 g ofH2SO4
Chemical M.W Eq. Wt. 1N of solution contains
NaOH 40 1 40 g
KOH 56 1 56g
Na2CO3 106 2 53g
HCl 36.45 1 45g
17. 3. Molal solutions
• Molality expresses the no. of moles per 1000 g or
1 Kg of solvent.
• It is dependent on the density of solvent.
• It is different from Molarity as the later refers to
volume of the solution, which is temperature
dependent.
• Molal solutions are not usually used in
biochemical exp.
18
18. 19
4. Percent solution
• Mass percent solutions are defined based on the grams of solute
per 100 grams of solution.
Example: 20 g of sodium chloride in 100 g of solution is a 20% by
mass solution.
• Volume percent solutions are defined as ml of solute per 100 mL
of solution.
Example: 10 mL of ethyl alcohol + 90 ml of H2O (making approx.
100 mL of solution) is a 10% by volume solution.
• Mass-volume percent solutions are also very common. These
solutions are indicated by w/v % & are defined as the grams of
solute per 100 mL of solution.
Example: 1 g of phenolphthalein in 100 mL of 95% ethyl alcohol
is a 1 w/v % solution.
20. 5. PPM and PPB
ppm: The number
of parts of solute
per 1 million parts
of total solution.
ppb: The number
of parts of solute
per billion parts of
solution.
21
Example
5 ppm chlorine = 5 g of chlorine
in 1 million g of
solution,
Or
5 mg chlorine in 1 million mg of
solution,
Or
5 pounds of chlorine in 1 million
pounds of solution
21. CONVERSIONS
To convert ppm or ppb to simple weight per
volume expressions:
5 ppm chlorine = 5 g chlorine =
106 g water
= 5 mg/1 L water
5 g chlorine
106 mLwater
= 5 X 10-6 g chlorine/ 1 mLwater
= 5 micrograms/mL
22. A COMPARISON OF METHODS OF EXPRESSING THE CONCENTRATION OF A
SOLUTE
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTE AMOUNT OF SOLUTE AMOUNT OF WATER
(Na2SO4)
1 M 142.04 g Na2SO4 BTV 1 L with water
1 m 142.04 g Na2SO4 Add 1.00 kg of water
1 N 71.02 g Na2SO4 BTV 1 L with water
1 % 10 gNa2SO4 BTV 1 L with water
1 ppm 1 mg BTV 1L
23
23. 24
PREPARING DILUTE SOLUTIONS
FROM CONCENTRATED ONES
• Concentrated solution = stock solution
• Use this equation to decide how much stock
solution you will need:
C1V1=C2V2
Where, C1 = concentration of stocksolution
C2 = concentration you want your dilute solution to be
V1 = how much stock solution you willneed
V2 = how much of the dilute solution you want tomake
24. EXAMPLE
• How would you prepare 1000
mL of a 1 M solution of Tris
buffer from a 3 M stock of
Tris buffer?
– The concentrated solution is 3
M, and is C1.
– The volume of stock needed is
unknown, ?, and is V1.
– The final concentration required
is
1 M, and is C2.
– The final volume required is
1000 mL and is V2.
SUBSTITUTING INTO THE
EQUATION:
C1 V1 = C2 V2
3 M (?) 1 M (1000 mL)
? = 333.33 mL
So, take 333.33 mL of the
concentrated stock solution
and BTV 1 L.
25
25. 26
Preparation of exact 1N HCL
• Dilute 100 ml of HCl with water to 1 L. Mix well.
• Prepare exact 1N sol. Of Na2CO3 by dissolving 5.30g
anhydrous Na2CO3 in 100 ml H2O.
• Phenolphthalein indicator
– Dissolve 250 mg indicator in 50 ml of 50% alcohol.
• Titration
– Take 10ml of acid sol & 10ml H2O in a small beaker
– Add 2-3 drops of indicator
– Titrate with Na2CO3 sol from a 25ml burette till a faint red
colour is obtained
– Note the vol.(x ml) of base consumed at the end point
26. 27
Contd..
• Calculate the exact normality of the acid by
formula
– Normality of base X vol. of base = normality of
acid X vol. of acid
– So, the normality of HCl = 1x X/10
– Normality of base is 1 vol of base is x ml.
• After calculating the exact normality of the
acid, it is proportionately diluted with water to
obtain to exact 1 normal sol.
27. 28
Exact 1N NaOH solution
• Eq. Wt. Of NaOH is 40g
So 40g dissolved in 1L of H2O fo approx. 1N sol. & used.
• But for exact normality it is titrated against Oxalic acid
sol.(6.3g in 100ml water)
• Take 10ml oxalic acid + 10ml water in a beaker, add 2-3
drops of phenolpthalein indicator. Titrate against the NaOH
from a burette till a faint red colour is obtained.
• Calculate exact normality of sodium hydroxide sol as in
case of acid & dilute proportionately with water to obtain
exact 1N sol.
28. • Do not use chemicals
from unlabeled
containers
• Do not place labels on
top of one another.
• Label chemicals clearly
and permanently.
29
29. You make it- you label it
1. identity of contents
2. concentration
3. your name
4.date of preparation
5.Hazard alert (if applicable)
30
An unla bele d container w i l l become
t o m o r r o w ’s
30. Do NOT
× eat, drink or smoke in the
laboratory .
× pipette by mouth
× leave equipment using
water, gas or electricity on
overnight
× Never add water to conc.
Sulphuric acid
31
31. ALWAYS
Keep your working area clean
and tidy.
Open bottles near window
where ventilation is available.
Handle conc. Acids & liquor
Ammonia with care.
label containers & solutions.
secure the tops of reagent
bottles immediately after use
32
wear a lab coat & appropriate
eye protection
wash hands after using any
substances hazardous to health,
on leaving the laboratory.
keep broken glassware & sharps
separate from other waste &
dispose of in the appropriate
containers
32. Know the solutions & different conc. to
represent them.
Documentation, labeling & recording what
was done
Traceability
SOPs & SPs
Maintenance and calibration of instruments
Stability and expiration date recorded
Proper storage
33
33. 34
References
Gallagher Sean R.; A.Wiley Emily; Current
protocols, essential laboratory techniques; 2nd
Ed. ; Wiley-Blackwell a John Wiley & sons, Inc.