- Communication systems allow the exchange of information between two points, through various applications like telephone, television, radio, and computer networks.
- A basic communication system consists of a source encoder, transmitter, channel, receiver, and source decoder. The source encoder converts a message signal into bits, the transmitter converts these bits into a format suitable for transmission over the channel, the receiver decodes the received signal back into bits, and the source decoder converts these bits back into the original message.
- Communication systems can operate in simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex mode. Key modulation techniques include amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, and phase modulation. Communication channels can be wired like optical fiber or wireless like
Arduino is a rapid electronic prototyping platform composed by the Arduino board, and IDE and it is used because it is an open-source project, flexible, easy to use, and unexpensive. Arduino are growing online community. A robotic scrub nurse has been developed here to assist human scrub nurses (also called delivery scrub nurses) during surgical interventions.
This document discusses analog and digital signals. It begins by explaining that data can be either analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take on continuous values, while digital data have discrete states and take discrete values. Signals can also be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values within a range, while digital signals can have only a limited number of discrete values. Periodic analog signals such as sine waves are discussed, along with their properties including frequency, period, amplitude, phase, and wavelength. Composite signals made up of multiple sine waves are also covered. The document then discusses digital signals and how they can be represented by analog signals.
Ethernet is a widely used local area network technology that uses coaxial cable or twisted pair wires. Advanced versions include switched Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps using 4B/5B encoding. Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps and maintains backward compatibility with previous Ethernet standards. It uses 8B/10B encoding and leverages technologies from Fibre Channel.
This document discusses network security and firewalls. It provides an overview of different types of firewalls including packet filtering firewalls, stateful inspection firewalls, application-level gateways, and circuit-level gateways. It also discusses firewall configuration options such as bastion hosts, host-based firewalls, personal firewalls, demilitarized zone networks, and distributed firewall setups. The key purpose of firewalls is to control access and enforce a site's security policy by filtering network traffic based on security rules.
These slides cover a topic on X.25, Frame relay and ATM in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
Definition of routing information protocol, Details of routing information protocol, RIP's version, Advantages of routing information protocol, Disdvantages of routing information protocol, Features of routing information protocol, RIP updating algorithm, Topology, Ring topology
Inter-VLAN routing is the process of forwarding network traffic from one VLAN to another VLAN using a
router.
VLANs divide broadcast domains in a LAN environment. Whenever hosts in one VLAN need to
communicate with hosts in another VLAN, the traffic must be routed between them. This is known as
inter-VLAN routing. On Catalyst switches it is accomplished by creating Layer 3 interfaces (Switch virtual
interfaces (SVI)).
This document provides an overview of different types of switches and their structures used in computer networks. It discusses circuit switches, packet switches, and message switches. For structures, it covers space division switches like crossbar and multistage switches. It also discusses time division and time-space-time switches. Specific switch designs covered include Banyan switches, which route packets based on header bits, and Batcher-Banyan switches, which combine a Banyan network with a Batcher network to sort packets and reduce blocking.
Arduino is a rapid electronic prototyping platform composed by the Arduino board, and IDE and it is used because it is an open-source project, flexible, easy to use, and unexpensive. Arduino are growing online community. A robotic scrub nurse has been developed here to assist human scrub nurses (also called delivery scrub nurses) during surgical interventions.
This document discusses analog and digital signals. It begins by explaining that data can be either analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take on continuous values, while digital data have discrete states and take discrete values. Signals can also be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values within a range, while digital signals can have only a limited number of discrete values. Periodic analog signals such as sine waves are discussed, along with their properties including frequency, period, amplitude, phase, and wavelength. Composite signals made up of multiple sine waves are also covered. The document then discusses digital signals and how they can be represented by analog signals.
Ethernet is a widely used local area network technology that uses coaxial cable or twisted pair wires. Advanced versions include switched Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, and Gigabit Ethernet. Fast Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps using 4B/5B encoding. Gigabit Ethernet provides speeds of 1000 Mbps and maintains backward compatibility with previous Ethernet standards. It uses 8B/10B encoding and leverages technologies from Fibre Channel.
This document discusses network security and firewalls. It provides an overview of different types of firewalls including packet filtering firewalls, stateful inspection firewalls, application-level gateways, and circuit-level gateways. It also discusses firewall configuration options such as bastion hosts, host-based firewalls, personal firewalls, demilitarized zone networks, and distributed firewall setups. The key purpose of firewalls is to control access and enforce a site's security policy by filtering network traffic based on security rules.
These slides cover a topic on X.25, Frame relay and ATM in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
Definition of routing information protocol, Details of routing information protocol, RIP's version, Advantages of routing information protocol, Disdvantages of routing information protocol, Features of routing information protocol, RIP updating algorithm, Topology, Ring topology
Inter-VLAN routing is the process of forwarding network traffic from one VLAN to another VLAN using a
router.
VLANs divide broadcast domains in a LAN environment. Whenever hosts in one VLAN need to
communicate with hosts in another VLAN, the traffic must be routed between them. This is known as
inter-VLAN routing. On Catalyst switches it is accomplished by creating Layer 3 interfaces (Switch virtual
interfaces (SVI)).
This document provides an overview of different types of switches and their structures used in computer networks. It discusses circuit switches, packet switches, and message switches. For structures, it covers space division switches like crossbar and multistage switches. It also discusses time division and time-space-time switches. Specific switch designs covered include Banyan switches, which route packets based on header bits, and Batcher-Banyan switches, which combine a Banyan network with a Batcher network to sort packets and reduce blocking.
Protocol design issue and computer networks protocolmohsin327164
The document discusses key considerations for designing network protocols, including reliability, scalability, addressing, error control, flow control, resource allocation, statistical multiplexing, routing, and security. A good protocol defines rules for effective communication, handles increasing data and users, identifies devices through addressing, detects and corrects errors, regulates data flow, allocates resources efficiently, shares resources optimally, directs data through best paths, and protects data through security measures. Protocols ensure smooth, reliable communication at each layer of complexity.
VTP allows for synchronization of VLAN information between switches to reduce administration. It uses advertisements sent over trunk links to exchange VLAN configuration details. A switch can be configured as a VTP server to manage VLANs for a domain, as a client to receive updates, or as transparent to only use local VLAN data. VTP pruning helps optimize traffic flow by restricting broadcasts only to necessary trunks.
Routing protocols allow routers to communicate and exchange information that helps determine the best path between networks. The main types are static routing, where routes are manually configured, and dynamic routing, where routes are automatically updated as network conditions change. Common dynamic routing protocols include RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, and OSPF, which use different algorithms and metrics like hop count or bandwidth to calculate the best routes.
The document is a presentation by Sachin from the 9:00 am batch about network topologies. It discusses ring, bus, star, and tree topologies, outlining their advantages and disadvantages. The presentation was created with help from the presenter's instructor, Beni Thomes sir.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in network layer design, including:
- Store-and-forward packet switching and the services provided to the transport layer.
- Implementation of connectionless and connection-oriented services, and comparison of virtual circuits and datagrams.
- Routing algorithms like shortest path, flooding, distance vector, link state, and hierarchical routing.
- Quality of service techniques including integrated services, differentiated services, and MPLS.
- Internetworking issues such as connecting different networks, concatenated virtual circuits, tunneling, and fragmentation.
- An overview of the network layer in the Internet including IP, addressing, routing protocols like OSPF and BGP, and
Computer networks a tanenbaum - 5th editioneepawan1809
This document is the front matter of a textbook on computer networks. It includes the title, copyright information, dedication, and table of contents. The textbook covers topics such as the physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, and examples of computer networks including the Internet, mobile networks, Ethernet, and wireless networks. It is intended to introduce students to the fundamental concepts and protocols of computer networking.
The document discusses IEEE standards and data link layer protocols. It describes the purpose and sublayers of the data link layer, including the logical link control and media access control sublayers. It also discusses functions of the data link layer such as framing, addressing, synchronization, error control, and flow control. Finally, it provides an overview of the IEEE 802 project and some common data link layer protocols.
It prevents a network from frame looping by putting some interfaces in forwarding state & some
interfaces in blocking state.
Whenever two or more switches are connected with each other for redundancy purpose loop can occur.
STP Protocol is used to prevent the loop. STP is layer 2 Protocol & by default it is enabled on switches.
Richard Hamming developed Hamming codes in the late 1940s to enable error correction in computing. Hamming codes are perfect 1-error correcting codes that use parity checks to detect and correct single bit errors in binary data. The codes work by encoding k message bits into an n-bit codeword with additional parity check bits such that the minimum distance between any two codewords is 3, allowing correction of single bit errors. Hamming codes see widespread use and can be generalized to non-binary alphabets. Extended Hamming codes provide both single-error correction and double-error detection.
Overview of the TELNET protocol.
TELNET is a protocol providing platform independent, bi-directional byte-oriented communication between hosts (unlike rlogin which is Unix based).
Most often TELNET is used for remote login to hosts on the Internet.
TELNET is basically a TCP connection with interspersed TELNET control information.
TELNET may use option negotiation for providing additional services such as character echoing back to the sender.
TELNET does not provide any authentication and therefore should not be used in unsecure environments anymore. SSH (Secure SHell) should be used instead.
OSI Model - Open Systems InterconnectionAdeel Rasheed
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has served as the most basic elements of computer networking since the inception in 1984. The OSI Reference Model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
A router connects two or more networks and routes packets between them using routing tables. It uses routing algorithms like distance vector or link state to dynamically determine the best paths. As a specialized computer, a router operates at the network layer and can function as a DHCP server, default gateway, and move data between networks through both hardware and software functionality.
The document discusses the history and layers of the TCP/IP protocol model. It was created by the Department of Defense to build a network that could survive any conditions. The four layers are application, transport, internet, and network access. The application layer supports protocols for file transfer, email, and other applications. The transport layer provides end-to-end control and segmentation of data. The internet layer routes packets through the network using IP. The network access layer defines LAN and WAN technologies.
By reading this you can enhance your knowledge about Data Communication Network and Redundancy check used for it for error detection. It only Detect the error and discard it from the sequence given in that codes.
Error coding uses mathematical formulas to encode data bits into longer code words for transmission. This allows errors caused by environmental interference to be detected and sometimes corrected at the destination. There are two main types of error coding: error-detecting codes and error-correcting codes. Error-detecting codes add enough redundancy to allow errors to be detected but not corrected, while error-correcting codes add more redundancy to allow errors to be corrected. Common error-detecting coding techniques include parity checks, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). These techniques use additional redundant bits appended to the data to facilitate error detection. CRC is particularly powerful as it can detect all single-bit errors and many burst errors.
This document summarizes key aspects of protocol architecture, TCP/IP, and internet-based applications. It discusses the need for a protocol architecture to break communication tasks into layers. It then describes the layered TCP/IP protocol architecture and its components, including the physical, network access, internet, transport, and application layers. It also summarizes TCP and IP addressing requirements and operation, as well as standard TCP/IP applications like SMTP, FTP, and Telnet. Finally, it contrasts traditional data-based applications with newer multimedia applications involving large amounts of real-time audio and video data.
The document discusses Converged Plantwide Ethernet (CPwE) architectures. It provides an overview of reference architectures developed through the Cisco and Rockwell Automation strategic alliance. The CPwE architectures are tested and validated designs that provide guidance and best practices for building scalable, reliable, secure and future-proof industrial network infrastructures to support digital transformation and Industrial IoT. The architectures have helped customers reduce costs, simplify designs and accelerate deployments.
This document provides information about a telecommunication systems course, including:
- The course code, title, credit hours, semester, instructor, and reference book.
- An outline of topics covered, including signals, modulation, linear systems, amplitude modulation, angle modulation, and transmitter/receiver block diagrams.
- A high-level overview of key concepts in signals, systems, and wireless communication systems.
Protocol design issue and computer networks protocolmohsin327164
The document discusses key considerations for designing network protocols, including reliability, scalability, addressing, error control, flow control, resource allocation, statistical multiplexing, routing, and security. A good protocol defines rules for effective communication, handles increasing data and users, identifies devices through addressing, detects and corrects errors, regulates data flow, allocates resources efficiently, shares resources optimally, directs data through best paths, and protects data through security measures. Protocols ensure smooth, reliable communication at each layer of complexity.
VTP allows for synchronization of VLAN information between switches to reduce administration. It uses advertisements sent over trunk links to exchange VLAN configuration details. A switch can be configured as a VTP server to manage VLANs for a domain, as a client to receive updates, or as transparent to only use local VLAN data. VTP pruning helps optimize traffic flow by restricting broadcasts only to necessary trunks.
Routing protocols allow routers to communicate and exchange information that helps determine the best path between networks. The main types are static routing, where routes are manually configured, and dynamic routing, where routes are automatically updated as network conditions change. Common dynamic routing protocols include RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, and OSPF, which use different algorithms and metrics like hop count or bandwidth to calculate the best routes.
The document is a presentation by Sachin from the 9:00 am batch about network topologies. It discusses ring, bus, star, and tree topologies, outlining their advantages and disadvantages. The presentation was created with help from the presenter's instructor, Beni Thomes sir.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in network layer design, including:
- Store-and-forward packet switching and the services provided to the transport layer.
- Implementation of connectionless and connection-oriented services, and comparison of virtual circuits and datagrams.
- Routing algorithms like shortest path, flooding, distance vector, link state, and hierarchical routing.
- Quality of service techniques including integrated services, differentiated services, and MPLS.
- Internetworking issues such as connecting different networks, concatenated virtual circuits, tunneling, and fragmentation.
- An overview of the network layer in the Internet including IP, addressing, routing protocols like OSPF and BGP, and
Computer networks a tanenbaum - 5th editioneepawan1809
This document is the front matter of a textbook on computer networks. It includes the title, copyright information, dedication, and table of contents. The textbook covers topics such as the physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, and examples of computer networks including the Internet, mobile networks, Ethernet, and wireless networks. It is intended to introduce students to the fundamental concepts and protocols of computer networking.
The document discusses IEEE standards and data link layer protocols. It describes the purpose and sublayers of the data link layer, including the logical link control and media access control sublayers. It also discusses functions of the data link layer such as framing, addressing, synchronization, error control, and flow control. Finally, it provides an overview of the IEEE 802 project and some common data link layer protocols.
It prevents a network from frame looping by putting some interfaces in forwarding state & some
interfaces in blocking state.
Whenever two or more switches are connected with each other for redundancy purpose loop can occur.
STP Protocol is used to prevent the loop. STP is layer 2 Protocol & by default it is enabled on switches.
Richard Hamming developed Hamming codes in the late 1940s to enable error correction in computing. Hamming codes are perfect 1-error correcting codes that use parity checks to detect and correct single bit errors in binary data. The codes work by encoding k message bits into an n-bit codeword with additional parity check bits such that the minimum distance between any two codewords is 3, allowing correction of single bit errors. Hamming codes see widespread use and can be generalized to non-binary alphabets. Extended Hamming codes provide both single-error correction and double-error detection.
Overview of the TELNET protocol.
TELNET is a protocol providing platform independent, bi-directional byte-oriented communication between hosts (unlike rlogin which is Unix based).
Most often TELNET is used for remote login to hosts on the Internet.
TELNET is basically a TCP connection with interspersed TELNET control information.
TELNET may use option negotiation for providing additional services such as character echoing back to the sender.
TELNET does not provide any authentication and therefore should not be used in unsecure environments anymore. SSH (Secure SHell) should be used instead.
OSI Model - Open Systems InterconnectionAdeel Rasheed
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model has served as the most basic elements of computer networking since the inception in 1984. The OSI Reference Model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
This document discusses layer 2 switching and VLANs. It begins by explaining how switching breaks up large collision domains into smaller ones by creating individual collision domains per switch port. It then discusses how VLANs allow further segmentation of the network by logically grouping ports regardless of their physical location. VLANs create separate broadcast domains to limit broadcast traffic to specific groups of users. The document provides examples of creating, assigning ports to, and deleting VLANs on a switch to segmented the network.
A router connects two or more networks and routes packets between them using routing tables. It uses routing algorithms like distance vector or link state to dynamically determine the best paths. As a specialized computer, a router operates at the network layer and can function as a DHCP server, default gateway, and move data between networks through both hardware and software functionality.
The document discusses the history and layers of the TCP/IP protocol model. It was created by the Department of Defense to build a network that could survive any conditions. The four layers are application, transport, internet, and network access. The application layer supports protocols for file transfer, email, and other applications. The transport layer provides end-to-end control and segmentation of data. The internet layer routes packets through the network using IP. The network access layer defines LAN and WAN technologies.
By reading this you can enhance your knowledge about Data Communication Network and Redundancy check used for it for error detection. It only Detect the error and discard it from the sequence given in that codes.
Error coding uses mathematical formulas to encode data bits into longer code words for transmission. This allows errors caused by environmental interference to be detected and sometimes corrected at the destination. There are two main types of error coding: error-detecting codes and error-correcting codes. Error-detecting codes add enough redundancy to allow errors to be detected but not corrected, while error-correcting codes add more redundancy to allow errors to be corrected. Common error-detecting coding techniques include parity checks, checksums, and cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs). These techniques use additional redundant bits appended to the data to facilitate error detection. CRC is particularly powerful as it can detect all single-bit errors and many burst errors.
This document summarizes key aspects of protocol architecture, TCP/IP, and internet-based applications. It discusses the need for a protocol architecture to break communication tasks into layers. It then describes the layered TCP/IP protocol architecture and its components, including the physical, network access, internet, transport, and application layers. It also summarizes TCP and IP addressing requirements and operation, as well as standard TCP/IP applications like SMTP, FTP, and Telnet. Finally, it contrasts traditional data-based applications with newer multimedia applications involving large amounts of real-time audio and video data.
The document discusses Converged Plantwide Ethernet (CPwE) architectures. It provides an overview of reference architectures developed through the Cisco and Rockwell Automation strategic alliance. The CPwE architectures are tested and validated designs that provide guidance and best practices for building scalable, reliable, secure and future-proof industrial network infrastructures to support digital transformation and Industrial IoT. The architectures have helped customers reduce costs, simplify designs and accelerate deployments.
This document provides information about a telecommunication systems course, including:
- The course code, title, credit hours, semester, instructor, and reference book.
- An outline of topics covered, including signals, modulation, linear systems, amplitude modulation, angle modulation, and transmitter/receiver block diagrams.
- A high-level overview of key concepts in signals, systems, and wireless communication systems.
This document summarizes key concepts in signals and systems. It discusses different types of signals including continuous-time and discrete-time signals. It covers signal classification such as even/odd signals and periodic/non-periodic signals. It also discusses energy and power signals. The document then explains systems and provides examples. It introduces important concepts in linear time-invariant systems including convolution and the Fourier transform. Finally, it discusses applications of signals and systems in areas like communication systems.
Signals and Systems
What is a signal?
Signal Basics
Analog / Digital Signals
Real vs Complex
Periodic vs. Aperiodic
Bounded vs. Unbounded
Causal vs. Noncausal
Even vs. Odd
Power vs. Energy
This document provides an overview of signals and systems. It defines a signal as a physical quantity that varies with time and contains information. Signals are classified as deterministic or non-deterministic, periodic or aperiodic, even or odd, energy-based or power-based, and continuous-time or discrete-time. Systems are combinations of elements that process input signals to produce output signals. Key properties of systems include causality, linearity, time-invariance, stability, and invertibility. Applications of signals and systems are found in control systems, communications, signal processing, and more.
This document contains the course syllabus for the Signals and Systems course at Karpagam Institute of Technology. It covers five units: (1) classification of signals and systems, (2) analysis of continuous time signals, (3) linear time invariant continuous time systems, (4) analysis of discrete time signals, and (5) linear time invariant discrete time systems. The first unit defines common signals like step, ramp, impulse, and sinusoidal signals and classifies signals and systems. It also introduces concepts of continuous and discrete time signals, periodic and aperiodic signals, and deterministic and random signals.
This document provides an overview of a course on principles of communication systems. It discusses the course objectives to introduce analog and digital communication systems and methods used to modulate and demodulate signals. It also covers topics like communication system components, bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, channel capacity, modulation, and classification of signals as deterministic/random, periodic/non-periodic, continuous/discrete, and energy/power signals. Key concepts like the unit impulse and unit step functions are also introduced.
DSP_2018_FOEHU - Lec 1 - Introduction to Digital Signal ProcessingAmr E. Mohamed
This lecture provides an introduction to digital signal processing. It defines what a signal is and discusses different types of signals including analog, discrete-time, and digital signals. It also covers signal classifications such as deterministic vs random, stationary vs non-stationary, and finite vs infinite length signals. The lecture then discusses analog signal processing systems and digital signal processing systems as well as transformations between time and frequency domains. It provides an overview of pros and cons of analog vs digital signal processing and examples of applications of digital signal processing.
The document provides information about a signals and systems course taught by Mr. Koay Fong Thai. It includes announcements about course policies, assessments, and schedule. Students are advised to ask questions, work hard, and submit assignments on time. The use of phones and laptops in class is strictly prohibited. The course aims to introduce signals and systems analysis using various transforms. Topics include signals in the time domain, Fourier transforms, Laplace transforms, and z-transforms. Reference books and a lecture schedule are also provided.
A signal is a pattern of variation that carry information.
Signals are represented mathematically as a function of one or more independent variable
basic concept of signals
types of signals
system concepts
This document discusses various digital communication techniques including:
1. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) which samples, quantizes, and encodes analog signals into digital pulses.
2. Differential PCM (DPCM) which encodes prediction errors rather than absolute samples to reduce bandwidth.
3. Delta Modulation (DM) which approximates signals as a staircase and quantizes the difference between samples.
4. Adaptive techniques like Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) are also discussed which allow variable step sizes and filter coefficients to improve performance for different signal characteristics.
This document provides an overview of digital communications and data transmission. It discusses key concepts such as analog to digital conversion (A/D), source coding, channel encoding, and modulation techniques.
The document begins with defining communication as the reliable transfer of data such as voice, video or codes from one point to another. It then outlines the basic components of a communication system including the information source, transmitter, channel, receiver and information sink.
It further explains the processes of analog to digital conversion including sampling, quantization and coding. It discusses how source coding aims to represent transmitted data more efficiently by removing redundant information. Finally, it provides an introduction to channel encoding which aims to control noise and detect/correct errors, as
The document discusses data transmission concepts and terminology. It explains that data transmission occurs between a transmitter and receiver over a transmission medium, using electromagnetic signals. Signals can be either analog or digital. Digital signals represent data using discrete voltage levels to represent bits, while analog signals have continuously varying voltage levels. The document discusses common transmission impairments like attenuation, delay distortion, and noise that can corrupt signals during transmission. It also introduces the concepts of channel capacity and the Nyquist formula, which states that the maximum data rate for a noise-free channel with bandwidth B is 2B bits per second.
This document defines key concepts in signal processing including signals, systems, and digital signal processing. It provides examples of signals that vary with time or other variables and carry information. Characteristics of signals like amplitude, frequency, and phase are described. Systems are defined as physical devices that operate on signals, with examples of filters. Signal processing involves passing signals through systems to perform operations like filtering. A block diagram shows the basic components of a digital signal processing system including analog to digital conversion, processing, and digital to analog conversion. Finally, advantages of digital over analog signal processing are listed such as programmability, accuracy, storage, and lower cost.
This document provides an overview of signals and systems. It begins with an introduction to signals, including definitions of key signal properties such as periodicity, causality, boundedness. It also distinguishes between continuous-time and discrete-time signals. The document then covers fundamental signal types including sinusoidal, exponential, unit step, and impulse signals. It concludes with discussions of signal processing concepts like the Fourier transform and basics of communication systems.
this lecture provide the different features of pulse code modulation it explains the concept using example and explained step by step shows the flat sampling and other type shows the advantage of pam provides the pcm system block diagram a brief introduction about delta modulation
Analog and Digital Signals and how to convert between them..pptxMohamedHussain648450
1. A signal conveys information through variations in voltage or current over time and can be either analog or digital. Analog signals are continuous while digital signals have discrete step-wise variations.
2. Digital communication systems have advantages over analog like higher quality information, efficiency, reliability, multiplexing capabilities, and data encryption. However, digital systems are more complex and require broader bandwidth.
3. Parity is an error detection method where an extra binary bit is added to detect single-bit errors during digital data transmission or storage by checking if the total number of 1s is even or odd.
A presentation about Analog and Digital Signals and how to convert between them.MohamedHussain648450
1. A signal conveys information through variations in voltage or current over time and can be either analog or digital. Analog signals are continuous while digital signals have discrete step-wise variations.
2. Digital communication systems have advantages over analog like higher quality information, efficiency, reliability, multiplexing capabilities, and data encryption. However, digital systems are more complex and require broader bandwidth.
3. Parity is an error detection method where an extra binary bit is added to detect single-bit errors during digital data transmission or storage by checking if the total number of 1s is even or odd.
The document provides an overview of analog communication systems. It defines analog signals as continuous signals that contain time-varying quantities, unlike digital signals which have discrete values. It then discusses the basic components of a communication system including the information signal, digitally compressed data, carrier signal, modulated carrier, transmitted signal, received signal, amplified signal, and recovered information signal. Finally, it covers transmission media such as radio waves, microwaves, and infrared transmission and their role in analog communication.
Similar to Introduction to communication system.pdf (20)
Kirchhoff's laws of voltage and current also apply in AC circuits in the frequency domain when voltages and currents are represented as phasors. This allows techniques such as impedance combination, nodal analysis, mesh analysis, and source transformation to be used to analyze AC circuits. Impedance combination rules show that resistors in series add their impedances together, while resistors in parallel calculate an equivalent impedance using current division. Delta-wye and wye-delta transformations can also be used with impedances. AC bridges use these principles to measure inductance and capacitance by balancing the bridge at resonance. Phase shifting circuits made of RC networks can be analyzed using impedance concepts.
This document discusses circuit elements and their behavior in the time and frequency domains. It describes:
1) How resistors, inductors, and capacitors are modeled using phasors, with the voltage-current relationships transformed to the frequency domain.
2) That resistors follow Ohm's law, inductors have voltage proportional to rate of current change, and capacitors have current proportional to rate of voltage change.
3) How to calculate steady-state current through an inductor or capacitor given the applied voltage using the phasor representations.
4) That impedance is the ratio of voltage to current in a circuit, accounting for both resistance and reactance, and can be expressed as a complex quantity in rectangular
1. Sinusoids are periodic signals that can be represented by sine and cosine functions. They are useful for analyzing AC circuits because real-world AC signals tend to be sinusoidal.
2. Phasors are complex numbers that represent the amplitude and phase of a sinusoidal signal. They allow sinusoidal circuits to be analyzed more easily compared to using sine and cosine functions.
3. To find the phase angle between two sinusoids, they must be expressed in the same trigonometric form with positive amplitudes. The phase is then the difference between their phase angles.
This document provides an overview of number conversion between different numeric systems including binary, decimal, hexadecimal, and octal. It discusses the techniques for converting between each system such as multiplying or dividing place values and keeping track of remainders. Conversion examples are also provided such as converting the binary number 101011 to the decimal 43.
Digital communication standards like SONET, E-carrier, and T-carrier were developed to define rules for digital data transmission over networks. SONET uses optical fiber and operates at high data rates, transporting digital signals in frames. Industry standards are set by organizations like ISO, ITU-T, IEEE, and ANSI to coordinate compatibility across networks and devices globally. Standards ensure interoperability and allow for continued network growth.
Resistors have their resistance values indicated by colored bands, with the first band representing the first digit, the second band the second digit, the third band the multiplier, and the fourth band the tolerance. The document provides examples of calculating the resistance and tolerance range of resistors based on their colored bands, explaining that resistors are assigned tolerance due to natural manufacturing variations preventing an exact value. It concludes by reviewing how to calculate a resistor's resistance from its color coding.
This document provides instructions on how to read resistor color codes to determine a resistor's resistance value. It explains that the 1st band represents the first digit, 2nd band is the second digit, 3rd band is the number of zeros, and the 4th (tolerance) band is either ±5% for gold or ±10% for silver. It includes a color code chart and examples of matching the colored bands to values and units like ohms. Practice problems are provided to help readers learn the code through examples.
A shift register is a sequential logic circuit that stores binary data by using flip-flops. It can transfer data either serially or in parallel. There are different types of shift registers depending on how data is input and output, such as serial-in serial-out (SISO), serial-in parallel-out (SIPO), parallel-in serial-out (PISO), and parallel-in parallel-out (PIPO). A SIPO shift register allows serial input but parallel output of data, with each clock pulse shifting the input bit to the next flip-flop.
Okay, here are the steps to solve this problem:
(a) Maximum theoretical data rate in bits per second:
C = (B log 2)(1 + S/N)
B = 12.5 kHz = 12,500 Hz
S/N = 25 dB
Converting to power ratio:
Antilog(25/10) = 31.6
C = (12,500 log 2)(1 + 31.6) = 12,500 * 1.584 * 32.6 = 558,000 bps
(b) Maximum theoretical channel capacity:
558,000 bps
(c) Number of coding levels N needed:
Solving the Shannon-Hartley
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KuberTENes Birthday Bash Guadalajara - K8sGPT first impressionsVictor Morales
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Literature Review Basics and Understanding Reference Management.pptxDr Ramhari Poudyal
Three-day training on academic research focuses on analytical tools at United Technical College, supported by the University Grant Commission, Nepal. 24-26 May 2024
2. Introduction
• Communication system is a system which describes the
exchange of information or data between two stations, i.e.
between transmitter and receiver.
• To transmit signals in communication system, it must be first
processed by several stages, beginning from signal
representation, to signal shaping until encoding and
modulation.
3. Application Areas
• Telephone/ Mobile
• Telegraph
• TV cable/ Radio
• Computer
• Defense/ military application
• Broadcasting, Mass Media or Journalism
• Satellite/ Space Communication
• Digital Signal Processing
• Image Processing
• And many more.....
4. Source
Decoder
Channel Receiver
Transmitter
Text
Images
Video
x(t) x̂(t) 1 2
m
ˆ
(t)
bˆbˆ...
1 2
m(t)
b b ...
Source
Encoder
Essentials of Communication System
Figure: Block Diagram of Digital Communication System
• Source encoder converts message into message signal or bits.
• Transmitter converts message signal or bits into format appropriate
for channel transmission (analog/digital signal).
• Channel introduces distortion, noise, and interference.
• Receiver decodes received signal back to message signal.
• Source decoder decodes message signal back into original message.
6. Simplex (SX) – one direction only, e.g. TV
Half Duplex (HDX) – both directions but not at the same
time, e.g. CB radio
Full Duplex (FDX) – transmit and receive simultaneously
between two stations, e.g. standard telephone system.
Full/Full Duplex (F/FDX) - transmit and receive
simultaneously but not necessarily just between two
stations,
e.g. data communications circuits
7. Medias for Communication
• Telephone Channel
• Mobile Radio Channel
• Optical Fiber Cable
• Satellite Channel
8. • Introduction To Communication System: Modulation,
Demodulation, Radio Frequency Spectrum, Signals &
their classification, Limitations & Advantages of a
Communication System, Comparison of Analog & Digital
Communication Systems, Historical Perspectives.
• Noise: Sources of Noise, External & Internal Noise,
Noise Calculations, Noise Figure, Noise Figure
Calculation, Noise Temperature, Noise in Communication
Systems, Band Pass Noise Model, Cascaded States & its
Noise Figure Calculation, Signal in presence of Noise,
Pre-Emphasis & De- Emphasis, Noise Quieting Effect,
Capture Effect, Noise in Modulation Systems.
Unit 1
9. Introduction to Communication System
• Modulation
• Demodulation
• Radio Frequency Spectrum
• Signals & their classification
• Systems & their classification
• Limitations & Advantages of a Communication
System
• Comparison of Analog & Digital Communication
Systems
• Historical Perspective
10. What is Modulation?
In modulation, a message signal, which contains the information is used to control the
parameters of a carrier signal, so as to impress the information onto the carrier.
The Messages
The message or modulating signal may be either:
analogue – denoted by m(t)
digital – denoted by d(t) – i.e. sequences of 1's and 0's
The message signal could also be a multilevel signal, rather than binary; this is not
considered further at this stage.
The Carrier
The carrier could be a 'sine wave' or a 'pulse train'.
Consider a 'sine wave' carrier:
vc t=Vccosωct+φc
• If the message signal m(t) controls amplitude – gives AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM
• If the message signal m(t) controls frequency – gives FREQUENCY MODULATION FM
• If the message signal m(t) controls phase- gives PHASE MODULATION PM or M
19. • A Signal is the function of one or more independent
variables that carries some information to represent a
physical phenomenon. e.g. ECG, EEG
• Classification of signals:
1. Continuous & Discrete Signals
2. Randam & Diterminstic Signals
3. Periodic & Non Periodic Signals
4. Causal & Non Causal Signals
5. Energy & Power signals
6. Even & Odd signals
Signals
20. Continuous-time Sinal: Signal
which is defined at every
instant of time, this means
that the signal is analog or
continuous in nature.
Discrete-time Sinal:
The Signal which is defined at
some instant of time, not at
every instant.
These signals are also known
as sampled signals.
Classification of Signals
22. Periodic vsAperiodic
• A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive
constant To i.e x(t) = x (t+To) for all t
• A signal x(t) is said to be non periodic:
if x(t) ≠ x (t+To) for all t
The smallest value of Tothat satisfies the periodicity condition
of this equation is the fundamental period of x(t).
Periodic Signal Non Periodic Signal
23. Energy and Power Signals
Energy Signal
• A signal with finite energy and zero power is called
Energy Signal i.e.for energy signal
0<E<∞ and P =0
• Signal energy of a signal is defined as the area under
the square of the magnitude of the signal.
• The units of signal energy depends on the unit of
the signal.
2
x x
E t dt
24. Energy and Power Signals Contd.
Power Signal
• Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that
case it is more convenient to deal with average
signal power.
• For power signals
0<P<∞ and E = ∞
• Average power of the signal is given by
/2
2
x
/2
1
lim x
T
T
T
P t dt
T
25. Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals
Deterministic signals
• Behavior of these signals is predictable w.r.t time
• There is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time.
• These signals can be expressed mathematically.
For example x(t) = sin(3t) is deterministic signal.
26. Deterministic & Non Deterministic Signals Contd.
Non Deterministic or Random signals
• Behavior of these signals is random i.e. not predictable
w.r.t time.
• There is an uncertainty with respect to its value at any
time.
• These signals can’t be expressed mathematically.
• For example Thermal Noise generated is non
deterministic signal.
29. Even and Odd Signal
A real function xe(t) is said to be an even function of t if
A real function xo(t) is said to be an odd function of t if
30. A system (plant) is a combination of
components, interrelated, independent
elements that are organized for a specific
purpose or task.
Classification of Systems:
1. Linear Time Invariant System (LTI System)
2. Linear Time Variant System (LTV System)
3. Continuous and Discrete time system
4. Causal and Non Causal Systems
Systems
31. Classification of Systems
Linear Time Invarient System (LTI System)/
Linear Time Varient System (LTV System):
Linear: The system that satisfies both superposition &
homogeniety principle are said to be linear system.
Time Invarient: The output due to input x(t) is y(t) then
the output due to input x(t+T) is y(t+T) is identical or same
irrespective to the delay T in the input of the system.
Linear+ Time Invarient= LTI System
If the system does not obey's the Time Invarient Principle
are known as Linear Time varient system.
32. Continuous System (Analog System): A
continuous-time system is a device that operates on a
continuous-time input and output signals.
Discrete time system : A discrete system is a system
with a countable number of states.
A discrete-time system is a device that operates on a
discrete-time input and output signals.
Continuous and Discrete time system:
33. Causal and Non Causal Systems:
Causal system : A system is said to be causal system if
its output depends on present and past inputs only and
not on future inputs.
Non Causal system: A system whose present
response depends on future values of the inputs is
called as a non-causal system.
34. 1. Speedy transmission: It requires only a few seconds to communicate
through electronic media because it supports quick transmission.
2. Wide coverage: World has become a global village and communication
around the globe requires a second only.
3. Low cost: Electronic communication saves time and money. For example,
Text SMS is cheaper than the traditional letter.
4. Exchange of feedback: Electronic communication allows the instant
exchange of feedback. So communication becomes perfect using electronic
media.
5. Managing global operation: Due to the advancement of electronic
media, business managers can easily control operation across the globe. Video
or teleconferencing e-mail and mobile communication are helping managers
in this regard
Advantages of a Communication System
35. 1. The volume of data: The volume of telecommunication information is
increasing at such a fast rate that business people are unable to absorb it
within the relevant time limit.
2. The cost of development: Electronic communication requires huge
investment for infrastructural development. Frequent change in technology
also demands further investment.
3. Legal status: Data or information, if faxed, may be distorted and will cause
zero value in the eye of law.
4. Undelivered data: Data may not be retrieved due to system error or fault
with the technology. Hence required service will be delayed
Disadvantages of a Communication System
36. • Digital communication can be done over large distances though internet
and other things.
• Digital communication gives facilities like video conferencing which save a
lot of time, money and effort.
• It is easy to mix signals and data using digital techniques.
• The digital communication is fast, easier and cheaper.
• It can tolerat the noise interference.
• It can be detect and correct error easily because of channel coding.
• Used in military application.
• It has excellent processing techniques are available for digital signals such
as data compression, image processing, channel coding and equalization.
Advantages of a Digital Communication
37. • Digital communication needs synchronization in synchronous
modulation.
• High power consumption.
• It required more bandwidth as compared to analog systems.
• It has sampling error.
• Complex circuit, more sophisticated device making is also
disadvantage of digital system.
Disadvantages of a Digital Communication
44. 1. Introduction
44
Noise is a general term which is used to describe an unwanted signal
which affects a wanted signal. These unwanted signals arise from a
variety of sources which may be considered in one of two main
categories:-
•Interference, usually from a human source (man made)
•Naturally occurring random noise
Interference
Interference arises for example, from other communication systems
(cross talk), 50 Hz supplies (hum) and harmonics, switched mode
power supplies, thyristor circuits, ignition (car spark plugs) motors
… etc.
45. 1. Introduction (Cont’d)
45
Natural Noise
Naturally occurring external noise sources include atmosphere disturbance
(e.g. electric storms, lighting, ionospheric effect etc), so called ‘Sky Noise’
or Cosmic noise which includes noise from galaxy, solar noise and ‘hot
spot’ due to oxygen and water vapour resonance in the earth’s atmosphere.
46. 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)
46
This type of noise is generated by all resistances (e.g. a resistor,
semiconductor, the resistance of a resonant circuit, i.e. the real part of the
impedance, cable etc).
Experimental results (by Johnson) and theoretical studies (by Nyquist) give
the mean square noise voltage as
)
(
4 2
2
_
volt
TBR
k
V
Where k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 x 10-23 Joules per K
T = absolute temperature
B = bandwidth noise measured in (Hz)
R = resistance (ohms)
47. 2. Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise) (Cont’d)
47
The law relating noise power, N, to the temperature and bandwidth is
N = k TB watts
Thermal noise is often referred to as ‘white noise’ because it has a
uniform ‘spectral density’.
48. 3. Shot Noise
48
• Shot noise was originally used to describe noise due to random
fluctuations in electron emission from cathodes in vacuum tubes
(called shot noise by analogy with lead shot).
• Shot noise also occurs in semiconductors due to the liberation of
charge carriers.
• For pn junctions the mean square shot noise current is
Where
is the direct current as the pn junction (amps)
is the reverse saturation current (amps)
is the electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 coulombs
B is the effective noise bandwidth (Hz)
• Shot noise is found to have a uniform spectral density as for thermal
noise
2
2
)
(
2
2 amps
B
q
I
I
I e
o
DC
n
49. 4. Low Frequency or Flicker Noise
49
Active devices, integrated circuit, diodes, transistors etc also exhibits
a low frequency noise, which is frequency dependent (i.e. non
uniform) known as flicker noise or ‘one – over – f’ noise.
5. Excess Resistor Noise
Thermal noise in resistors does not vary with frequency, as previously
noted, by many resistors also generates as additional frequency
dependent noise referred to as excess noise.
6. Burst Noise or Popcorn Noise
Some semiconductors also produce burst or popcorn noise with a
spectral density which is proportional to
2
1
f
50. 7. General Comments
50
For frequencies below a few KHz (low frequency systems), flicker
and popcorn noise are the most significant, but these may be ignored
at higher frequencies where ‘white’ noise predominates.
51. 8. Noise Evaluation
51
The essence of calculations and measurements is to determine the
signal power to Noise power ratio, i.e. the (S/N) ratio or (S/N)
expression in dB.
dBm
dBm
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
dB
ratio
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
e
i
mW
mW
N
N
and
mW
mW
S
S
that
recall
Also
N
S
N
S
N
S
N
S
10
10
10
10
10
log
10
log
10
.
.
1
)
(
log
10
1
)
(
log
10
log
10
52. 8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)
52
The probability of amplitude of noise at any frequency or in any band
of frequencies (e.g. 1 Hz, 10Hz… 100 KHz .etc) is a Gaussian
distribution.
53. 8. Noise Evaluation (Cont’d)
53
Noise may be quantified in terms of
noise power spectral density, po watts per
Hz, from which Noise power N may be
expressed as
N= po Bn watts
Ideal low pass filter
Bandwidth B Hz = Bn
N= po Bn watts
Practical LPF
3 dB bandwidth shown, but noise does not suddenly cease
at B3dB
Therefore, Bn > B3dB, Bn depends on actual filter.
N= p0 Bn
In general the equivalent noise bandwidth is > B3dB.
54. 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems
54
Thermal Noise (Johnson noise)
This thermal noise may be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown below
)
(
4 2
____
2
volt
TBR
k
V
____
2
V n
V
kTBR
2
(mean square value , power)
then VRMS =
i.e. Vn is the RMS noise voltage.
A) System BW = B Hz
N= Constant B (watts) = KB
B) System BW
N= Constant 2B (watts) = K2B
For A,
KB
S
N
S
For B,
B
K
S
N
S
2
55. 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)
55
2
2
___
2
1
___
____
2
n
n
n V
V
V
1
1
____
2
1 4 R
B
T
k
Vn
2
2
____
2
2 4 R
B
T
k
Vn
)
(
4 2
2
1
1
____
2
R
T
R
T
B
k
Vn
)
(
4 2
1
____
2
R
R
B
kT
Vn
Assume that R1 at
temperature T1 and R2 at
temperature T2, then
i.e. The resistor in series at same temperature behave as a
single resistor
Resistors in Series
56. 9. Analysis of Noise In Communication Systems (Cont’d)
56
Resistance in Parallel
2
1
2
1
1
R
R
R
V
V n
o
2
1
1
2
2
R
R
R
V
V n
o
2
2
___
2
1
___
____
2
o
o
n V
V
V
____
2
n
V
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
4
R
R
R
R
R
T
R
R
T
R
R
R
kB
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
_____
2 )
(
4
R
R
R
T
R
T
R
R
kB
Vn
2
1
2
1
_____
2
4
R
R
R
R
kTB
Vn
57. 10. Matched Communication Systems
57
In communication systems we are usually concerned
with the noise (i.e. S/N) at the receiver end of the system.
The transmission path may be for example:-
Or
An equivalent circuit, when the line is connected to the receiver is shown below.
59. 11. Signal to Noise
59
Power
Noise
Power
Signal
N
S
N
S
N
S
dB 10
log
10
The signal to noise ratio is given by
The signal to noise in dB is expressed by
dBm
dBm
dB N
S
N
S
for S and N measured in mW.
12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure
Consider the network shown below,
60. 60
12. Noise Factor- Noise Figure (Cont’d)
• The amount of noise added by the network is embodied in the
Noise Factor F, which is defined by
Noise factor F =
OUT
IN
N
S
N
S
• F equals to 1 for noiseless network and in general F > 1. The
noise figure in the noise factor quoted in dB
i.e. Noise Figure F dB = 10 log10 F F ≥ 0 dB
• The noise figure / factor is the measure of how much a network
degrades the (S/N)IN, the lower the value of F, the better the
network.
61. 13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements
61
OUT
IN
N
S
N
S
OUT
OUT
IN
IN
S
N
N
S
OUT
S IN
S
G
IN
OUT
IN
IN
S
G
N
N
S
F
IN
OUT
N
G
N
For active elements with power gain G>1, we have
F = = But
Therefore
Since in general F v> 1 , then OUT
N is increased by noise due to the active element i.e.
Na represents ‘added’ noise measured at the output. This added noise may be referred to the
input as extra noise, i.e. as equivalent diagram is
62. 13. Noise Figure – Noise Factor for Active Elements (Cont’d)
62
Ne is extra noise due to active elements referred to the input; the element is thus
effectively noiseless.
66. 17. Cascaded Network
66
A receiver systems usually consists of a number of passive or active elements connected in
series. A typical receiver block diagram is shown below, with example
In order to determine the (S/N) at the input, the overall receiver noise figure or noise
temperature must be determined. In order to do this all the noise must be referred to the same
point in the receiver, for example to A, the feeder input or B, the input to the first amplifier.
e
T e
N
or is the noise referred to the input.
67. 18. System Noise Figure
67
Assume that a system comprises the elements shown below,
Assume that these are now cascaded and connected to an aerial at the input, with ae
IN N
N
from the aerial.
Now ,
3
3
3 e
IN
OUT N
N
G
N
IN
IN N
F
N
G 1
3
3
3
Since
IN
IN
e
IN
IN N
F
N
G
N
N
G
N 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
similarly
IN
ae
IN N
F
N
G
N 1
1
1
2
68. 18. System Noise Figure (Cont’d)
68
IN
IN
IN
ae
OUT N
F
G
N
F
G
N
F
G
N
G
G
G
N 1
1
1 3
3
2
2
1
1
1
2
3
The overall system Noise Factor is
ae
OUT
IN
OUT
sys
N
G
G
G
N
GN
N
F
3
2
1
ae
IN
ae
IN
ae
IN
N
N
G
G
F
N
N
G
F
N
N
F
2
1
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
3
2
1
4
2
1
3
1
2
1
..........
1
.
..........
1
1
1
n
n
sys
G
G
G
F
G
G
G
F
G
G
F
G
F
F
F
The equation is called FRIIS Formula.