Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
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Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
- Link to NephroTube website: www.NephroTube.com
- Link to NephroTube social media accounts: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/join-nephrotube-on-social-media.html
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
Pharynx and Clinical Correlations BY Dr.Rabia Inam Gandapore.pptx
INTESTINAL GLANDS AND SECRETIONS
1. DR NILESH KATE
MBBS,MD
ASSOCIATE PROF
ESIC MEDICAL COLLEGE, GULBARGA.
DEPT. OF PHYSIOLOGY
INTESTINAL
GLANDS AND
DIGESTION AND
ABSORPTION.
2. OBJECTIVES.
Intestinal glands & secretions
Functions
Digestion and absorption of carbohydrate
Digestion and absorption of proteins
Digestion and absorption of fats
Absorption of water.
Applied aspects.
3. INTESTINAL GLANDS &
SECRETIONS
Intestinal juice –
Succus Entericus.
Includes aqueous
components
Intestinal enzymes
Mucus.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
4. AQUEOUS COMPONENTS
Mainly water & electrolyte
secreted by epithelial cells
of intestines(Crypts of
Liberkuhn)
2L/Day
Same as ECF but slightly
alkaline,
Colorless, cloudy (Mucus,
Epitelial cells & cholesterol)
Thursday, April 26, 2018
5. MECHANISM OF FORMATION
Active secretion of
chloride & HCO3 ions
leads to diffusion of Na
ions followed by
osmotic movement of
water.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
6. FUNCTIONS
Provide solvent medium in which products of
digestion are dissolved.
Fluid rapidly reabsorbed in villi thus provide
watery vehicle for absorption.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
7. INTESTINAL ENZYMES
This causes final hydrolysis of
food before absorption.
Mode of secretion of this
enzyme- Holocrine
Enzymes are –
Peptidases (Peptide – AA),
Diasaccharidases (Di – Mono)
Intestinal Lipase (split TG),
Enterokinase (Trypsinogen –
Trypsin)
Thursday, April 26, 2018
9. REGULATION OF SECRETIONS
Local stimuli
Mechanical (Distension), Chemical irritation.
Role of VIP – Increases secretions
Secretions of Brunner’s gland increased by
Vagus stimulation, Direct stimulation, & Secretin
Thursday, April 26, 2018
10. FUNCTIONS OF JUICE
Mechanical functions
– Mixing & propulsive
movements.
Digestive functions
Thursday, April 26, 2018
11. FUNCTIONS OF JUICE
Absorptive functions –
huge surface area due
to Plicae circularis &
villi & microvilli.
Hormonal functions.
Activator functions
Protective function.
Hydrolytic function.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
12. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
OF CARBOHYDRATE
Dietary carbohydrates.
Digestion of carbohydrates.
Absorption of carbohydrate
Fate of Glucose in body.
Abnormalities of carbohydrate digestion and
absorption.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
14. DIGESTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES.
In mouth – mainly
starch Digestion to
maltose by α-amylase
in saliva.
In stomach – α-amylase
continues for 30 min till
HCl comes, optimum pH
for action is 6-7 but
activity stops in
stomach when pH <4.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
15. DIGESTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES.
In small intestine
Pancreatic α-amylase –
released in 2nd
part of
duodenum in alkaline
medium
Polysachhride (starch,
glycogen)
Pancreatic amylase.
Oligosachhrides
(Maltose, Dextrin)
Thursday, April 26, 2018
16. DIGESTION OF
CARBOHYDRATES.
Brush border enzymes
of small intestine
Dextrinase, maltase,
sucrase, lactase.
Dextrin to glucose
Maltose to glucose
Sucrose to Glucose+
Fructose
Lactose to Glucose+
Galactose.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
17. ABSORPTION OF
CARBOHYDRATE
Site of absorption from the
mucosal surface of jejunum
& upper ileum.
Mechanism of absorption
Glucose & Galactose By Na
dependent active transport
system
Fructose – Fascilitated
diffusion.
Pentose – Simple diffusion.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
18. FATE OF GLUCOSE IN BODY.
Storage as Glycogen –
5% in liver & muscle.
Catabolism to
produce energy – 50-
60%
Conversion into fat –
30-40%
Thursday, April 26, 2018
19. ABNORMALITIES OF CARBOHYDRATE
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION.
Lactose intolerance –
Congenital – due to
deficiency of enzyme
Lactase.
Leads to Diahhroea &
electrolyte Imbalance.
Secondary lactase
deficiency
Causes intestinal
distension, flatulence,
diahhroea
Thursday, April 26, 2018
20. DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
OF PROTEINS
Sources
Exogenous – Daily
requirement 0.5-0.7 g/kg
Sources – meat, fish,
eggs, milk, soyabean.
Endogenous (30-50
gm/day)
From various GIT
secretions
Present in desquamated
epithelial cells of Gut.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
21. DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
In stomach
Pepsin – by chief cells of
main gastric glands
Digest 10-15%
Pepsinogen to pepsin by
HCL
Pepsin splits proteins to
Proteoses, peptones &
polypeptides.
Optimum pH – 2 (acid
need for digestion)
Thursday, April 26, 2018
22. DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
In small intestine
Pancreatic proteases –
digest protein into
Dipeptides, Tripeptides &
Polypeptides
Brush border peptides
include dipeptidases,
tripeptidases & Nucleases
Intracellular peptidases
final digestion to amino
acids.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
23. DIGESTION OF NUCLEI ACID
AND NUCLEOPROTEINS
Nuclei acid and
nucleoproteins
present in liver,
kidney, pancreas,
yeast
In stomach
Nucleoproteins to
proteins + free
nucleic acid.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
24. DIGESTION OF NUCLEI ACID
AND NUCLEOPROTEINS
In small intestine
Free nucleic acid (RNA & DNA)
Pancreatic Enzymes (Ribonucleases &
Deoxyribonuleases)
Nucleotides & Nucleosides
Brush Border enzymes (Nuclease,
Nucleotidase, Nucleosidase)
Pentoses (Purines & Pyrimidine)
Thursday, April 26, 2018
25. ABSORPTION OF PROTEINS
Into intestinal
epithelial cells
Na dependent active
transport mechanism.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
26. TRANSPORT OF AMINO ACIDS
IN BLOOD CAPILLARIES.
From Epithelial cells
Simple diffusion & Fascilitated.
Interstitial space
Simple diffusion
Capillaries
Thursday, April 26, 2018
27. ABNORMALITIES OF PROTEIN
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Inadequate absorption of proteins
Malabsorption of amino acids.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
29. DIGESTION OF FATS
Site – Mainly in small
intestine.
Mechanism of digestion.
Emulsification of fats by bile
salts
Hydrolysis of fat droplets by
pancreatic and intestinal
Lipolytic enzymes.
Acceleration of fat digestion
by Micelle formation.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
30. EMULSIFICATION OF FATS BY
BILE SALTS
Emulsification –
Breaking of large drops
into small droplets is
must for Pancrease
lipase to act.
It is done by bile salts
Lecithin greatly
enhances this action.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
31. HYDROLYSIS OF FAT DROPLETS BY
PANCREATIC AND INTESTINAL LIPOLYTIC
ENZYMES.
Pancreatic lipolytic
enzyme -3 types
Pancreatic lipase – it
hydrolyses almost all
TG to 2 FA & 2
monoglycerides.
Cholesterol ester
hydrolase
Cholesterol ester
Cholesterol ester
hydrolase
Cholesterol & FA
Phospholipase A2
Hydrolyses PL &
separate FA from them.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
32. ACCELERATION OF FAT DIGESTION
BY MICELLE FORMATION.
MICELLE - small water
soluble cylindrical disc
shaped particles.
Composed of central fat
globule surrounded by
30 molecules of bile salts.
Monoglycerides & FFA
are incorporated in
central fatty portion.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
33. ABSORPTION OF FATS
Mostly in Duodenum.
Steps
Transportation as a
micelles to the brush
border membrane
Diffusion of lipids across
the Enterocyte cell
membrane.
Transport of lipids from
inside the enterocytes to
the interstitial space.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
34. TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS FROM INSIDE THE
ENTEROCYTES TO THE INTERSTITIAL
SPACE.
Mechanism
Diffusion across the
basal border of
enterocytes.
Formation and excretion
of chylomicrons from the
enterocytes by
exocytosis.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
35. TRANSPORT OF LIPIDS INTO
CIRCULATION
After exit from
enterocytes
chylomicrons merge
into larger droplets.
From interstitium then
diffuse into lacteals
then to lymphatic
circulation & then via
thoracic duct to enter
circulation.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
36. ABSORPTION OF WATER
Water balance in GIT
GIT receives about 9 L water/day
2L – Ingested
7L – From salivary, gastric, biliary, Pancreatic & Intestinal
secretions.
Total absorption 8.8L/day
60% - In Jejunum
20-25% - Ileum
10-15% - colon.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
37. MECHANISM OF WATER
ABSORPTION.
Passively & Iso
Osmotically following
osmotic gradient due to
absorption of electrolyte
& nutrients
In Duodenum – Due to
chyme
In Jejunum & Ileum –
reabsorption of NaCl
Thursday, April 26, 2018
38. MECHANISM OF WATER
ABSORPTION.
In small intestine –
Na-Glucose cotransport,
Na-amino acid
cotransport,
Na-H counter transport
In colon – passive
diffusion via Na
channels & stimulated
by aldosterone.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
39. APPLIED ASPECTS.
Malabsorption
syndrome – Multiple
nutritional deficiency
states are produced.
Features –
General weakness, anaemia
& signs of Hypovitaminosis
Iron deficiency anaemia
Steatorrhoea
Dehydration.
Thursday, April 26, 2018
40. CONDITIONS CAUSING
MALABSORPTION SYNDROME….
Coeliac disease (Gluten Hydrolase)
Sprue (Vit B12 & Folate)
Crohn’s disease (IBD)
Resection of small intestine.
Gastro-colic fistula
Blind loop syndrome – formation of areas of intestine where
bacteria can proliferate without being subjected to
movement down th intestine
Thursday, April 26, 2018