1) The landed aristocracy in Britain declined as an economic force from 1850 to 1914 as industrialists rose to prominence. Some aristocrats invested in industry to remain wealthy. 2) During the industrial era, society stratified into social classes including the bourgeoisie, working proletariat, and landed aristocracy. Living and working conditions improved for workers after 1850 but inequality remained. 3) Rapid urbanization in Europe from 1800-1914 saw populations shift from rural to urban areas, straining infrastructure and living standards until public health reforms in the late 1800s.

1. INDUSTRIAL
SOCIETY

2. Industrial Era Social
Class Relations:
Landed Aristocracy
• Landed aristocracy
were 3/4 of British
millionaires in 1850.
• Eclipsed by captains
of industry, they
were only 1/4 of
British millionaires
in 1914.
The fictional Grantham family of Downton Abbey.

3. Industrial Era Social Class Relations: Landed Aristocracy
Some aristocrats invested in mining, rail, utilities, bonds, and business helping
Britain's early industrial lead.

4. Industrial Era Social Class Relations:
Landed Aristocracy
Old money and new money merged.
American heiress Consuelo Vanderbilt
married Duke of Marlborough securing social
status for the Vanderbilt family in New York
high society of the Gilded Age while
Marlborough gained a fortune in railroad
stock.

5. Industrial Era Social Class
Relations—Bourgeoisie
• The middle class was less
than 1/5 of British
population, yet they
controlled more than 1/4 of
national wealth in 1900.
• Victorian values of Christian
morality, propriety, sobriety,
self-discipline, thrift,
cleanliness, sexual purity,
and fidelity epitomized
bourgeois culture.

6. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
• Industry needed white-collar engineers,
accountants, managers, and clerks.
Teaching, nursing, and dentistry became
respectable professions.

7. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
White-collar work offered single
women employment as
• clerks
• typists
• secretaries
• telephone operators
• teachers
• nurses
• postal service workers

8. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Bourgeoisie
• Married women labored only in poor
families. Victorian middle class women
lived according the cult of domesticity
which protected femininity and
avoided factory and office work.
• Women's place was managing the
home, budgeting, raising the children,
and providing moral guidance.
Shopping for food and goods was
conducted almost entirely by foot
requiring frequent trips out.

9. Apartment living in Paris
This drawing shows how different social classes lived
close together in European cities about 1850. Passing the
middle-class family on the first floor of this Paris
apartment, the economic condition of the tenants
declined until one reached abject poverty in the garret.
(Bibliotheque nationale de France)
Apartment living in Paris

10. Industrial Era
Social Class
Relations—
Proletariat
• 80% of the
European
population
were skilled
and unskilled
workers,
shopkeepers,
artisans,
peasants, and
sharecroppers.
Capital and Labour: In coal mines 'labourers are obliged to go on all-
fours like dogs'. The labouring poor are locked away in misery, toiling
to produce the wealth that enabled 'upper classes' to live in luxury.

11. Worker Housing in Manchester

12. Factory Workers at Home

13. Industrial Era Social Class Relations—
Proletariat
• Work conditions improved after 1850.
Wages doubled by 1906. In 1870, French
workers spent 75% of their income on food
but only 60% by 1900.
• Shorter hours gave time for children and
recreation. Nonetheless, labor unions and
socialist parties grew, and rhetoric heated.
• By 1900 only 8% in Britain, 25% in
Germany, and less than 50% in France still
farmed.
Union certificate
This colorful certificate signifies membership
in the first professional union in Britain, the
Amalgamated Society of Engineers.

14. Working class home
This charming engraving
Sunday Morning,
Workman's Home,
Leather Lane depicts a
new emphasis on
emotional ties within
ordinary working-class
homes in 1875. Parents
gave their children
more love and better
care. (Illustrated London
News Library)
Working class home

15. School for servants
Although domestic service was poorly paid, there
was always plenty of competition for the available
jobs. As this photo shows, schools sprang up to
teach young women the manners and the
household skills that employers in the "servant-
keeping classes" demanded. (Greater London
Council Photograph Library)
School for servants

16. Urbanization
• New farm machines & falling price
of food  unemployed farmers
• Farmers move from country 
cities to find work (taking new
railroads to get there). Urban
populations grew by 70% per
decade.
• London’s population
• 1800: 1 million
• 1850: 2.5 m
• 1900: 6 m.
Map of London, 1806
Map of London, 1900

17. Urbanization
Rapid urban growth  miserable living
conditions: tenements, pollution, poor
sanitation, disease
1842: Edwin Chadwick reported on
Manchester's filth.
1848: Britain’s first public health law was
enacted after a major cholera outbreak.

18. Court for King Cholera
This 1852 drawing tells volumes
about the unhealthy living
conditions of the urban poor in
London.
In the foreground, children play
with a dead rat and a woman
scavenges a dungheap.
Cheap rooming houses provide
shelter for the frightfully
overcrowded population. (British
Library)
Court for King Cholera

19. Dore engraving of London
This engraving by the French artist
Gustave Dore (1832-83, the most
popular and successful French book
illustrator of the mid-nineteenth century)
depicts the overcrowded and unsanitary
conditions in industrial London in the
nineteenth century.
Because municipal authorities were
unable to cope with the rapid pace of
urbanization, the working class was
forced to live in dwellings such as these
row houses, which did not have
adequate sanitation or recreational
facilities. (Courtesy, Dover Publications)
Dore engraving of London

20. Rat-killing as a sport
Some harsh forms of
entertainment turned up
in the industrial period.
As this engraving shows,
scores of working-class
spectators came to see
the celebrated dog "Billy"
kill one hundred rats at
one time at the
Westminster Pit in
London in 1822. (British
Library)
Rat-killing as a sport

21. Urbanization
• 1854: Louis Pasteur introduced the germ
theory of disease.
• Louis Pasteur's germ theory (1870) led
to safe milk and packaged foods, Joseph
Lister's surgical antiseptics, and Robert
Koch's 1905 Nobel Prize for isolating
tuberculosis bacillus.
Louis Pasteur doing science stuff.

24. Sanitation
• 1860s–1870s: Water and
sewage systems were built.
• Thomas Crapper
popularized the flush toilet.
Crystal Palace (1851) visitors
could "spend a penny" to
use a public toilet.
• Frankfurt boasted sewers
that flushed waste “From
the toilet to the river in half
an hour.”
Thomas Crapper’s toilet
allowed people to give
a crap to the sewers.

25. Sanitation
• The British Public Health Act of 1875
mandated running water in new housing.
Regular hot baths and showers followed.
Trash was collected and incinerated.

27. Urbanization
• European population grew
due to a falling death rate.
• Increased food supply
boosted immunity. More
children reached
adulthood. People lived
longer. Viral outbreaks fell
and vaccinations checked
smallpox.
• War claimed fewer victims
from 1815 to 1914.
Edward Jenner developed a
vaccine for smallpox in 1796.

28. Urbanization
1880s–1890s: German doctors introduced new
vaccines.
1910: The urban death rate was same as or less
than rural death rate.
1914: 80% of Britons, 60% of Germans, 45% of
French, and 30% of Eastern Europeans were
living in urban areas.

29. Urbanization
• Population of Europe, 1851: 266 million
• Population of Europe, 1910: 460 million

30. Emigration
• 1820–1920: 60 million Europeans
left—71% to North America, 21% to
Latin America, and 7% Australia.
• About half went to the United
States including 5.5 million
Germans, 4.4 million Irish, 4.2
million Italians, and 3.7 million
Austro-Hungarians.
• 1/3 of the Norwegian and 1/4 of
the Swedish populations emigrated.

31. Emigration
• 1880: Italian, Greek, Hungarian,
Polish, Slavic, and Jewish emigration
was on the rise. The assassination of
Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1881)
triggered Jewish pogroms. 40% of
Russian emigrants were Jews.
• 1910: Immigrants were 14.7% of
U.S. population.

32. Urban growth, Vienna
This 1873
chromolithograph by G.
Veith gives a panoramic
view of the Ringstrasse, a
broad and handsome
boulevard that had
replaced the old ramparts
of Vienna after they were
pulled down in 1857.
Within the Ring--which
was lined with public
buildings--lay the old city,
clustered round the
cathedral of St. Stephen.
(Museen der Stadt,
Vienna)
Urban growth, Vienna

33. Urban landscape, Madrid
This wistful painting of a square in
Madrid on a rainy day, by Enrique
Martinez Cubella y Ruiz (1874-1917),
includes a revealing commentary on
public transportation. Coachmen
wait atop their expensive hackney
cabs for a wealthy clientele, while
modern electric streetcars that carry
the masses converge on the square
from all directions. (Museo
Municipal, Madrid/The Bridgeman
Art Library International)
Urban landscape, Madrid

34. Urbanization
• 1853–1870: Napoleon III hired
Georges Haussmann to
redesign Paris. Razing old slums
for broad boulevards opened
traffic, improved housing,
created parks and open spaces,
and made assembling
revolutionary barricades
difficult.
• Aqueducts doubled the amount
of available fresh water. Sewers
carried filth away.

35. The long, straight avenues that continue to dominate Paris (pictured here
around 1870) were a key feature of Baron Haussmann’s rebuilding plans.

36. An overview of Paris, centring on the Étoile area that Haussmann redesigned.

37. Paris lit up by electricity
The electric light bulb was
invented in the United States
and Britain, but Paris made
such extensive use of the
new technology that it was
nicknamed the "City of
Lights."
To mark the Paris Exposition
of 1900, the Eiffel Tower and
all the surrounding buildings
were illuminated with strings
of light bulbs while powerful
spotlights swept the sky.
(Civica Raccolta delle Stampe
Achille Bertarelli, Milanoi)
Paris lit up by electricity

38. Urbanization
Transportation: Horse-drawn
public rail (1806) gave way to
steam (1825). Horse-drawn
buses (1825) were later driven
by steam (1831), electric trolley
(1882), and combustion motor
(1895).
1870s: Public transit was
introduced via horse-drawn
streetcars. Electrified streetcars
ferried 6.7 billion
passengers/year by 1910.

39. Urbanization
• Street
Lighting:
Gas
(London,
1807)
and then
kerosene
(Ukraine,
1853)
were
used to
light the
streets.

40. Urbanization
• Electric arc lamps showcased at the
Paris Exposition (1881).
A carbon arc
streetlamp of
the type used in
Victorian Britain.

41. Urbanization
Housing: British factory owners built
company towns— New Lanark and
Saltaire. Local governments closed slums
(1885) and built housing estates (1890).

42. Urbanization
• Public Parks: Princes Park,
Liverpool, UK (1842), was
funded privately. Peel Park,
Manchester, Britain (1846),
was funded publically.
• At City Park, Budapest,
Vajdahunyad Castle (1896)
opened to celebrate
Hungary's 1000th
anniversary, and visitors
soaked at Széchenyi Bath
(1913).
• Sweden established the first European
national park (1909).