The Reformation and European Wars of Religion

1. The Reformation and the
European Wars of Religion,
c. 1517-1648
The Peasants’ Revenge from The Miseries of War by Jacques Callot (1633)

2. Part 1:The Reformation

3. Causes of the Reformation
• Ignorance: Many priests were poorly
educated on theological matters.
• Simony: Church offices were sold.
• Pluralism: Clergy were appointed to
multiple Church offices.
• Absenteeism: Clergy lived outside of
their parish or diocese.
• Nepotism: Popes and bishops
appointed their “nephews” (often
illegitimate sons) to high office.

4. Causes of the Reformation
• 1305–1377: Pope Clement V moved the
papacy to Avignon, France, during the
Babylonian Captivity.
• 1378–1417: Pope Gregory XI returned the
papacy to Rome, but the French elected a
second pope causing the GreatWestern
Schism. Papal prestige fell as European
loyalties were divided.

5. Causes of the Reformation
• 1300s–1400s: Christian mysticism, a spiritual
revival stressed the imitation of Christ’s life
through voluntary poverty, care of the poor
and sick, and religious devotion.
• Lay persons went on religious pilgrimages to
see relics and holy sites, established lay
orders, practiced asceticism, and supported
popular preachers.
• Beguines and Beghards were devout lay
orders who lived in semi-monastic religious
communities in northern Europe.

6. Causes of the Reformation
• 1300s–1400s: Reform efforts by English John
Wycliffe and Czech Jan Hus were violently
suppressed.
Jan Hus is considered the first Church reformer. He was burned at the
stake for heresy against the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church.

7. Causes of the Reformation
• Printing:The publication of the
Guttenberg Bible and spread of
printing in the late 1400s ended the
Church’s monopoly on knowledge of
salvation.
spread of printing in Europe

8. Causes of the Reformation
• Corruption: Pope Alexander VI (r. 1493–1503), born Rodrigo Borgia, was reputed
to have fathered illegitimate children and was accused of buying the papacy with
bribes and hosting orgies at the Vatican. His son, Cesare Borgia, was accused of
murdering his brother.

9. Causes of the Reformation
• Christian humanism merged Christian
ethics with humanist principles of
individual worth, dignity, and materialism.
• Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam
prepared new Greek and Latin translations
of the New Testament and critiqued
superstitious and corrupt Catholic
practices in Praise of Folly (1511).
• Thomas More of England critiqued
European society through an imagined,
socialistic society in Utopia (1516).
Criticism of the Church by Desiderius Erasmus, the leading
Christian humanist, set the stage for the Protestant Reformation.

10. Causes of the Reformation
• Indulgences: Church grants offered absolution of sins and shortening of time in
Purgatory.
• Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521) authorized Johann Tetzel to sell printed indulgences to
finance beautification of St. Peter’s Basilica.
main facade of Saint Peter's Basilica, Rome

11. German Reformation
• Martin Luther nailed to the
Wittenberg Church door
95 Theses (1517), opposing
the selling of indulgences
and other Church practices.

12. German Reformation
• Luther refused to recant his objections at the
Diet ofWorms (1521).

13. German Reformation
• Luther believed in salvation by
faith alone, not good works, and
recognized baptism and
communion as the only
sacraments. He also argued for
clerical marriage and family.
• Luther believed the Bible, not
the clergy, was the highest
authority and translated it into
German (1522).

14. German Reformation
• Thomas Müntzer
radicalized Martin
Luther’s attack on
religious authorities
into the German
Peasants’ Revolt
(1524–1525) against
secular princes.
• Luther condemned the
violence and urged
obedience to German
princes.

15. German Reformation
• Philip Melanchthon defended Luther and
authored the Augsburg Confession (1530)
of Lutheran theology.
• Protestant princes supported Luther partly
because of their anti-Hapsburg sentiment.
They formed the Schmalkaldic League
(1531) and confiscated Church property in
Germany.
• Lutheranism spread north to Scandinavia.

16. German Reformation
• Luther’s anti-Semitic treatise On the Jews and Their
Lies (1543) called for the burning of Jewish
synagogues, schools, homes, and writings; the
murder of active rabbis; and the expulsion of all Jews
from Germany.
left: caricature of
Pope Alexander VI by
Martin Luther, 1545
right: illustration of a
Jewish pogrom

17. German Reformation
• Wars against the French and Ottomans
initially delayed Hapsburg dynasty
Holy Roman Emperor CharlesV from
suppressing Lutheranism.
• When he finally launched the
SchmalkaldicWar (1546–1547), the
Protestants were defeated but
Lutheranism had become too
entrenched to destroy.

18. German Reformation
• The Peace of Augsburg (1555)
divided the Holy Roman Empire
between Lutheran and Catholic
states.
• The cuius regio, eius religio
principle allowed German
princes to choose which faith to
follow.

20. Swiss Reformation
• 1522–1531: Influenced by humanism and
Erasmus, Swiss Ulrich Zwingli preached
reform in Zurich and was killed battling
Catholics.

21. Swiss Reformation
• French John Calvin wrote
Institutes of the Christian
Religion (1536) and led Geneva,
Switzerland (1541–1564) through
the theocratic Consistory which
enforced morality.

22. Swiss Reformation
• Calvin preached scriptural study,
God’s earthly guidance through
providence, and predestination
(the salvation of the Elect and
damnation for most due to human
depravity as a legacy of original
sin).
• Calvin emphasized simplicity, a
strong work ethic, self-
improvement, and economic
success as signs of being Elect.

23. Swiss Reformation
• Calvinism spread to France (Huguenot), the Netherlands (Reformed), Scotland
(Presbyterian via John Knox), and England (Puritan).
Presbyterian leader John Knox was the minister
of St. Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland.

24. English Reformation
• HenryVIII of England (r. 1509–1547)
lacked a male heir.

25. + =
Henry VIII Catherine of
Aragon
Mary I

26. English Reformation
• When he was denied a papal marriage
annulment from Catherine of Aragon,
he separated the Anglican Church
from Rome, and confiscated Catholic
wealth in England.

27. + =
Henry VIII Anne Boleyn Elizabeth I

28. + =
Henry VIII Jane Seymour Edward VI

29. Anne of Cleves
DIVORCED

30. Catherine Howard
BEHEADED

31. Catherine Parr
SURVIVED

32. Henry VIII and his six wives: divorced, beheaded,died, divorced, beheaded,survived.

33. English Reformation
• Anglican reforms were more
conservative than Lutheran or
Calvinist reforms.
• The English monarch was named
the head of the Anglican Church,
but many Catholic practices were
kept.

34. English Reformation
• Protestant reform intensified under EdwardVI
(r. 1547–1553).

35. English Reformation
• “Bloody” Mary I (r. 1553–1558) restored
Catholicism, married Philip II of Spain, burned
283 Protestants at the stake, and exiled 800 others.

36. English Reformation
• Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603) enforced
moderate Protestantism with the Acts of
Supremacy (1558) and Uniformity (1559)
in the English Religious Settlement.

37. Puritanism
• Mobs of Dutch Calvinists
violently destroyed Catholic
art in the iconoclastic
Beeldenstorm (image storm).
• Similar acts were carried out
by Calvinist Puritans in
England who wished to purify
the Anglican Church of all
Catholic influence.

38. Puritanism
• James I (r. 1603–1625) and Charles I (r. 1625–1649)
rejected further Protestant reforms and
persecuted Puritans. 21,000 Puritans emigrated to
New England.

39. Puritanism
• Middle class Puritans
dominated the House of
Commons in the 1630s.Their
conflict with Charles I
climaxed in Puritan victory
during the English Civil War
(1642–1649).
• Puritan Lord Protector Oliver
Cromwell led the
Commonwealth of England,
Scotland, and Ireland as a
military dictator.
• The English monarchy was
restored in 1660.

40. Anabaptism
• The Anabaptists were several
groups of radical reformers.
• They practiced:
• baptism of adult believers
• separation of church and state
• pacifism

41. Anabaptism
• Many Anabaptists emphasized apocalyptic
millennialism—preparation for the end times
and Christ’s second coming.
Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, Albrecht Dürer (1497–1498)

42. Anabaptism
• Anabaptists were persecuted by
Catholics and more moderate
Protestants alike. Many
emigrated to North America,
including the Amish.

43. Catholic Reformation
• The Roman Catholic Church
launched a Catholic Reformation,
or Counter-Reformation, in the 1540s.
• Pope Paul III (r. 1534–1549) convened
the Council of Trent (1545–1563).
• The Council:
• rejected compromise with
Protestants
• reaffirmed papal authority
• reaffirmed basic Catholic doctrines
• sought to improve the education and
discipline of priests
• sought to improve administration of
the Church

44. Catholic Reformation
• The Roman Inquisition (est. 1542) rooted
out Protestantism, Judaism, sorcery and
witchcraft, immorality, and the distribution
of censored works.
• Pope Paul IV (r. 1555–1559) issued the
Index of Forbidden Books and restricted
Jews to the ghettos.

45. Catholic Reformation
• Ignatius of Loyola founded the disciplined
Society of Jesus, or Jesuits (1540) to fight
Protestantism and propagate Catholicism.

46. Catholic Reformation
• Jesuit priest Francis Xavier led evangelical missions to India, Indonesia, and Japan.

47. Catholic Reformation
• Jesuit priest Robert de Nobili
worked to convert Indian
elites, a strategy adopted by
other Jesuit missionaries.
Jesuit priests at court in Mughal India, 1605

48. Catholic Reformation
• Other Jesuits carried Catholicism to China, Brazil,
Canada, and elsewhere.
Miracles of St. Francis Xavier by André Reinoso (1619-22)
Matteo Ricci in China, 1607

49. Catholic Reformation
• Jesuit schools educated Catholic elite and Jesuit priests advised monarchs.

50. Catholic Reformation
• c. 1600–c. 1750: Dramatic, extravagant,
flamboyant ornamental Baroque art,
architecture, and music radiated power
and inspired awe to reenergize the
Catholic faith.
Peter Paul Rubens, The Elevation of the Cross, 1610

51. Catholic Reformation
• c. 1600–c. 1750: Dramatic, extravagant,
flamboyant ornamental Baroque art,
architecture, and music radiated power
and inspired awe to reenergize the
Catholic faith.
Diego Velazquez, Christ Crucified, 1632

52. Catholic Reformation
• c. 1600–c. 1750: Dramatic, extravagant,
flamboyant ornamental Baroque art,
architecture, and music radiated power
and inspired awe to reenergize the
Catholic faith.
Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614–1620

53. Catholic Reformation
• c. 1600–c. 1750: Dramatic, extravagant,
flamboyant ornamental Baroque art,
architecture, and music radiated power
and inspired awe to reenergize the
Catholic faith.
Rembrandt van Rijn, Balaam and the Ass, 1626

54. Catholic Reformation
• Gian Bernini designed the interior and piazza
of Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome and sculpted
the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa of Avila who sought
a trance-like mystical union with God.
Interior of Saint Peter’s Basilica by Giovanni Paolo Panini (1731)

55. Catholic Reformation
• Church facades, palaces, and great buildings showcased grandiose architecture to
project Church and royal power.
Palace of Versailles, France Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, Spain

56. Catholic Reformation
• Church facades, palaces, and great buildings showcased grandiose architecture to
project Church and royal power.
St. Paul’s Cathedral, London

59. Part 2:TheWars of Religion
The Hanging from The Miseries of War by Jacques Callot (1633)

60. FrenchWars of Religion
• French Calvinists were known as
Huguenots.
• Calvinist theology appealed to French
nobles and urban bourgeoisie. Many
nobles also turned to Calvinism out of
opposition to the Catholic Valois dynasty
monarchy.
• 1572: About 2 million Protestants,
roughly 10% of the French population,
held 60 fortified cities.

61. FrenchWars of Religion
• 1562: Huguenots were
massacred at Vassy, starting
religious civil wars.
• 1572: Elites gathered in Paris
for the wedding of the king’s
Catholic sister to Huguenot
leader Henry of Navarre.
The wedding was supposed to
bring peace; instead, prominent
Huguenots were slaughtered in
the St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre.The killings spread
throughout France.
St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of French Protestants (1572)

62. FrenchWars of Religion
• 1587–1589: 2–4 million people died during the War of Three Henrys before
Catholic Valois King Henry III and Spanish Hapsburg-supported Catholic Henry of
Guise were defeated.
Henry III
Catholic
final Valois king of France
Henry of Guise
Catholic
supported by Philip II of Spain
Henry of Navarre
Huguenot
first Bourbon king of France
vs. vs.

63. FrenchWars of Religion
• 1589:Victorious Henry of Navarre was crowned Henry IV (r. 1589–1610) and
founded the Bourbon dynasty. He converted to Catholicism and stated “Paris is
well worth a mass.” He issued the Edict of Nantes (1598) tolerating Huguenots.
Henry IV at the Battle of Arques, 1589 Frans Pourbus, King Henry IV, 1600

64. FrenchWars of Religion
• 1685: Louis XIV revoked the
Edict of Nantes in the
Edict of Fontainebleau.
Up to 900,000 Huguenots fled France.
Jan Antoon Neuhuys, Emigration of the Huguenots, 1566

66. The Dutch Revolt
• 1568: William the Silent of Orange led the Calvinist Dutch Revolt starting an
Eighty Years’War of Independence against Catholic Spain lasting until 1648.
Michael von Eytzinger, Spanish soldiers executing
Dutch Protestants at Haarlem in 1567 (1585)
Michael von Eytzinger, Spanish soldiers killing the
inhabitants of Antorff during the 80 Years’ War (1585)

67. The Dutch Revolt
• 1579:The Union of Utrecht formed the
Calvinist northern United Provinces of
Netherlands.The southern Netherlands
remained Catholic under Hapsburg Spain.

68. The Dutch Revolt
• 1588: Protestant
Elizabeth I of
England’s support
of the Dutch
contributed to the
failed Spanish
Armada.

69. Netherlands,
1582
Philip II
of Spain
William of
Orange
Dutch
Estates-General
Elizabeth I
of England
‘Not longe time since I
sawe a cowe / Did
Flaunders represente /
Upon whose backe kinge
Phillip rode / As being
malecontnt. // The queene
of England giving hay /
Wheare on the cow did
feede / As one that was her
greatest helpe / In her
distresse and neede. // The
prince of Orange milkt the
cow / and made his purse
the payle / The cow did
shyt in monsieurs hand /
While he did hold her
tayle.’
The Dairy Cow: The Dutch Provinces, Revolting
against the Spanish King Philip II, Are Led by
Prince William of Orange, The States General
Entreat Queen Elizabeth I for Aid (c. 1633)

71. The ThirtyYears’War –
Causes
• The formation of the defensive
Protestant Union (1608)
prompted organization of the
Catholic League (1609).

72. The ThirtyYears’War –
Bohemian Phase
• 1618: Bohemian Protestants ejected Catholic
Hapsburg imperial ministers out of a third
story window in the Defenestration of Prague.

73. The ThirtyYears’War –
Bohemian Phase
• 1619: Bohemian Protestant
nobles deposed Holy Roman
Emperor Frederick II, a
zealous Catholic, from his role
as King of Bohemia.

74. The ThirtyYears’War –
Bohemian Phase
• 1620: Catholic League,
Hapsburg imperial, and
Spanish forces crushed
Bohemian Protestants at the
Battle of White Mountain.
Peter Snayers, The Battle of White Mountain (c. 1630)

76. The ThirtyYears’War – Danish Phase
• 1625–1629: Lutheran Christian IV of Denmark intervened on the Protestant side.
Catholic Hapsburg imperial forces repulsed the Danes and looted northern
Germany.

77. Sebastiaan Vrancx, The Looting of Wommelgem (1625-1630)

79. The ThirtyYears’War – Swedish Phase
• 1630–1635: Lutheran military genius Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervened,
winning major Protestant victories. His death left Protestants directionless and
allowed Catholic imperial forces to recover.
The Lion of the North: Gustavus Adolphus depicted at the
turning point of the Battle of Breitenfeld (1631).

81. The ThirtyYears’War –
French Phase
• 1631–1635: French Catholic
Cardinal Richelieu
financially supported
Protestant Sweden in order to
diminish Hapsburg power.
Sebastiaan Vrancx, A landscape with travelers ambushed outside a small town (c. 1630s)

82. The ThirtyYears’War –
French Phase
• 1635–1648: Bourbon France
intervened directly against
Hapsburg Spain and the
Hapsburg-led Holy Roman
Empire.
• French and Swedish battlefield
victories left only Austria under
Hapsburg control within the
Holy Roman Empire.
Pierre Franque, Battle of Lens (1648)

84. The ThirtyYears’War –
Consequences
• The Peace of Westphalia
(1648) between the Holy
Roman Empire, Spain, France,
Sweden, and the Dutch
Republic ended most fighting.
• Treaties established a modern
diplomatic structure in
international affairs based on
principles of sovereign states,
international law, a balance of
power, and noninterference in
domestic affairs.
The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (1648) by Gerard ter Borch

85. The ThirtyYears’War –
Consequences
• The Holy Roman Empire and
Hapsburg Spain were greatly
weakened.
• Bourbon France and Sweden
reached Great Power status.
• The Netherlands and
Switzerland gained
independence.

86. The ThirtyYears’War –
Consequences
• 25%–40% of the German population died
due to plunder, starvation, and pestilence.
Sebastiaan Vrancx, Soldiers Plundering a Farm (1620)
21 million (1618)  13.5 million (1648)

87. The ThirtyYears’War - Consequences
• Massive devastation led Brandenburg-Prussia to seek security
by becoming a powerful military state in the late 1600s.
Johann Christ, Potsdam Giant (c. 1700)

88. The ThirtyYears’War – Consequences
• The Peace of Westphalia set a precedent for diplomatic peace congresses after
seismic conflicts (Vienna, 1815; Paris, 1919).