The document discusses the concept of development, highlighting its evolution post-World War II and various theoretical perspectives such as Marxism, modernization, dependency theory, and world systems theory. It explores how different approaches interpret development and the challenges faced by developing nations in achieving economic and social progress. The paper aims to synthesize these theories to provide insights into the complexities of societal change and the dynamics between developed and developing countries.

1. Introduction
Development means change towards the betterment. It is a positive approach which can make
better for the man, for the society and for the country. It refers to the planned and calculative
change towards a terminal condition. The concept of developemnt emerged after the second
world war when many countries were facing the crisis & challenges of development in
economic, political and social sectors in terms of nation building & national integration. From
Marx to recent thoughts on development are the principal theoretical explanations to interpret
development efforts carried out especially in the developing countries. These theoretical
perspectives allow us not only to clarify concepts, to set them in economic and social
perspectives, but also to identify recommendations in terms of social policies. The theorists
describe different models and present their propositions by which stages of social progress in
developing countries can be achieved as well as the they find out the reasons why they are being
dependent on first world countries, the first world countries how they politicize and control poor
countries through their help and support in name. This paper has been developed with a view to
knowing the thoughts and ideologies given by numerous thinkers & theorists in different periods
regarding developemnt in different perspectives from ancient period to recent world. A number
of secondary sources has been used in developing this paper to establish the topic of approcahes
of development. The sole objective of this paper is to know the various views regarding
development so that these views can help us know the evaluation, change & progess of various
societies from a static condition to a dynamic situation as well as these can be applied for
enriching our knowledge about the present world.

2. Approaches of development
Development approach or theory is a conglomeration or a collective vision of theories about how
desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social science
disciplines and approaches.
Marxist view
Marx determines the development of society. In order to live people must have food, clothing,
housing, and other material means of life, and to have these people must produce them, they
must work. Therefore the production of material wealth is the basis of the life and development
of any society. (Nikitin, 1966)
1. Production of material wealth it implies human labor, the means of labor, and the
objects of labor
 Labor
 Means of labor
 Objects of labor
Labor is a purposive activity of human being directed towards the production of material wealth.
Approaches of development
Marxist view Neo Marxist viewModernization Recent trends
view
Dependency
theory
World system
theory
Multi-dimensional
view
Postdevelopment
theory
Sustainable
development
Human development
theory

3. Means of labor the term used to denote all the things with the aid of which people act upon the
objects of labor and transform them. It includes the machinery and equipment, tools and
applications for production purposes.
Objects of labor everything upon which man’s labor is used. All the primary objects of labor are
available in nature. Man has to adapt them to his requirements.
2. Means of production the means of labor and the objects of labor together form the
means of production. The means of production themselves can’t produce material wealth.
The finest technical equipment is lifeless without people to use it.
3. Mode of production the mode of production does continue the unity of the productive
forces and the relations of production. These two sides interact and influence each other.
Both the sides develop in the process of the improvement of production.
Figure: Mode of production (Nikitin, 1966)
The productive forces include the means of production created by the society, first and
foremost the instrument of labor and also the people who produce material wealth. It is people,
Mode of Production
Means of
production
People with production
experiences & labor
skills
Forms of ownership
of means of
production
Relations of productionProductive forces
Place of classes &
social groups in
society and their
relationships
Forms of
distribution of
material wealth

4. because of their knowledge, experiences and labor skills that set in motion the instruments of
production, who improve them, invent machines and add to their knowledge.
The relations of production the relations between people in the process of the production,
distribution and exchange of material wealth Marx called production or economic relation. The
relation determines the place people occupy in production and the methods by which the
products of labor are distributed. There have been five types of relations of production in the
history of human society’s development. These are –
Each of these is based on a specific form of ownership of the means of production. Thus, the
basis of the slave owing, feudal and capitalist systems is private ownership of the means of
production, which has inevitably brought society to a split between hostile classes –exploiters
and exploited. The main features of these systems are, therefore, a fierce class struggle. Only
under socialism, where the basis of the relations of production is public, socialist ownership of
the means of production, there is no class struggle: society consists of friendly classes –workers,
peasants and the social stratum of intellectuals.
Modernization
Modernization is a progressive process which in the long run is not only inevitable but
desirable. According to Coleman, modernized political systems have a higher capacity to deal
with the function of national identity, legitimacy, penetration, participation, and distribution than
traditional political systems. Finally, modernization is a lengthy process. It is an evolutionary
Primitive-communal
Slave-owning.
Capitalist
Feudal
Communist
Primitive-communal
Slave-owning.
Capitalist
Feudal
Communist

5. change, not a revolutionary one. It will take generations or even centuries to complete, and its
profound impact will be felt only through time.
Modernization theory
Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies.
The theory focuses at the internal factors of a country while assuming that, with assistance,
"traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner as developed countries
have. Modernization theory attempts to identify the social variables for social progress and
development of societies. Modernization theory not only stresses the process of change but also
the responses to that change.
Reasons behind the emergence of modernization theory
There are three main and historical elements which were favorable to the inception of the
modernization theory of development after the Second World War.
First, there was the rise of the United States as a superpower. While other Western nations, such
as Great Britain, France, and Germany, were weakened by World War II, the United States
emerged from the war strengthened, and became a world leader with the implementation of the
Marshall Plan to reconstruct war-torn Western Europe.
Second, there was the spread of a united world communist movement. The Former Soviet
Union extended its influence not only to Eastern Europe, but also to China and Korea.
Third, there was the disintegration of European colonial empires in Asia, Africa and Latin
America, giving birth to many new nation-states in the Third World. These nascent nation-states
were in search of a model of development to promote their economy and to enhance their
political independence.
There are various development theories of modernization in case of economic development.
According to economic perspective, the theory of Walt Whitman Rostow (W.W. Rostow) and
W. Arther Lewis is most important in economic development.

6. W.W. Rostow’s Stages of Growth model
The Rostow's Stages of Growth model is one of the major historical models of economic growth.
It was published in 1960 at the height of the Cold War and with the subtitle "A Non-Communist
Manifesto”. He distinguishes the model into five stages of growth. Through five stages how
society’s growth is done is shown by the following figure
 The traditional society
 The pre-condition for take-off.
 The take-off.
 The drive to maturity.
 The age of high-mass consumption.
Figure: Rostow’s five stages of economic growth
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostow's_stages_of_growth
The drive to maturity
The take-off
The pre-condition for take-
off
The traditional society
Presence of science &
technology.
Ex. Srilanka
The society is ready for
development.
Ex. India
Ex
Age of high progress
Ex. Malaysia
Sustained economic growth
Ex. United Kingdom
Absence of science &
technology but presence of
agriculture
Ex. Ethopia
The age of high-mass
consumption

8. Criticism of modernisation theory
 It is ethnocentric because (a) it devalues traditional values and social institutions e.g.
extended families
(b) it ignores increasing inequality within and between countries
(c) it is not a neutral theory as it suggests (it promotes western capitalist values)
 Education in developing world mainly benefits small, local elites (those at the top)
 It assumes unlimited natural resources for industrial expansion. (ignores ecological
issues)
 Many countries seemed to have become stuck at stages and can't move onto to stage 4
and 5.
 Developed countries only reached stage 5 by exploiting countries, now making it
impossible for poorer countries to develop further
 High levels of debt and corruption mean some countries struggle to progress
 It is probably not possible for all countries to enjoy mass consumption. Some countries
will need to specialize in primary products to satisfy our demand for food and raw
materials. Because jobs in primary industries are less well paid, it will probably mean that
they are as wealthy and can not enjoy a mass consumption lifestyle.
Neo Marxist view
Dependency theory
Dependency theory is the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and
underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the
former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich
ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the world system. In dependency theory,
the developed nations actively keep developing nations in a subservient position, often through
economic force by instituting sanctions, or by proscribing free trade policies attached to loans
granted by the World Bank or International Monetary Fund.

9. Origin of Dependency theory
Dependency theory originates with two papers published in 1949 one by Hans Singer, one by
Raúl Prebisch .The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization
theory. The contribution of Andre Gunder Frank (A.G. Frank), Samir Amin, Sunkel, Dos Santos
in dependency theory is remarkable.
Main aspects of dependency theory
 This theory sees the world capitalist system into two words center /metropolis/ core and
satellite/ periphery/ where the developed countries like America, England, and France
etc. lie at center and developing countries like Afghanistan, Srilanka, South Africa etc. at
periphery.
 The development of the rich world was achieved by exploitation of the developing world.
 Developing countries moved into production of cash crops (coffee, tea, cocoa) which
meant that they were no longer subsistent and actually dependent on developed countries
for food imports and food aid.
 Poor nations provide raw materials, natural resources, cheap labor and market at a lower
price which in turn back for higher priced finished goods.
 Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. The
influence may be through media, politics, education, culture, sports and all aspects of
human resource development ( through recruitment and training of workers)
 Rich nations actively counter attempts by dependent nations to resist their influences by
means of loans, grants and/or the use of military force.
 Developing nations can’t utilize their resources because of advanced technology,
investment, fund where developed nations took the scope to utilize the resources through
their technology and keep them dependent upon them and this process will continue until
the developing nations will be able to make their strong positions.

10. Reasons of gaining popularity of dependency theory
 Many poor countries owe large debts to developed countries or international banks
 The world is now more globalized with many developed country TNCs operating in and
possibly exploiting developing countries.
 Developed countries tend to specialize in more value added industries like banking and
manufacturing, widening the development gap even more. The diagram to the right
shows how goods flow to the periphery. This can increase debt and hamper there own
independence and technological development
 Many international organizations are dominated by developed countries e.g. G20, World
Bank, IMF and even the UN Security Council
 Many developing countries have now become reliant on NGO help
 Population growth is highest in developing countries so many are suffering from greater
overpopulation and are more dependent on foreign help.
Dependency theory of A. G. Frank’s ‘Development of underdevelopment’
In the book ‘Capitalism and Under Development in North America’ Frank discussed detailed
about dependency in which he identified the main basis of dependency is metropolis-satellite
relationships.
The Development of underdevelopment which denotes that underdevelopment is not a natural
condition but an artifact created by the long history of colonial domination in third world
countries.

11. Basic concept of Frank’s theory
Metropolis-the industrialized area
Satellite-isolated backward areas
Main features of dependency theory of A.G. Frank
 In the world there exists world capitalist system. Western industrialized capitalist
countries has made metropolis center. On the other hand, agriculture based under
development countries make up satellite.
 Satellite can’t be developed because they are controlled by the metropolis.
 In world capitalist system no social change is possible for satellite countries because they
can’t take decision about their own matter and they don’t have self-dependent economy.
 The chain of relationships does not change since sixteen century only changes in the
forms of dominance and exploitation of the satellite not changes of substance.
 The satellites can’t get in the race of development because of quantitative reduction in the
growth of its productivity, output and employment.
 The general people of satellites will get freedom through revolution.(Marxist Theories of
Imperialism, page, 163-170)
Periphery
(“Satellites”)
Core
“Metropolis”
Industrial Goods
Food, Raw materials

12. World Systems Theory
The world systems theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, is an approach to
world history and social change that suggests there is a world economic system in which some
countries benefit while others are exploited. It discusses the three-level hierarchy approach to
economics, which consists of core, periphery, and semi-periphery countries, in the context of
global inequality.
Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and
raw materials. They are strong in military power and not dependent on any one state or
country. Core countries are powerful, and this power allows them to pay lower prices for raw
goods and exploit cheap labor, which constantly reinforces the unequal status between core and
peripheral countries.
The first core region was located in northwestern Europe and made up of England, France, and
Holland. Today, the United States is an example of a core country.

13. Periphery countries fall on the other end of the economic scale. These countries lack a strong
central government and may be controlled by other states. These countries export raw materials
to the core countries, and they are dependent on core countries for capital and have
underdeveloped industry. These countries also have low-skill, labor-intensive production, or, in
other words, cheap labor. Periphery countries are commonly also referred to as third-world
countries.
Eastern Europe and Latin American were the first peripheral zones. An example from today is
Cape Verde, a chain of islands off the west coast of Africa.
Semi periphery countries
Semi periphery countries fall in the middle of the economic spectrum. These countries share
characteristics of both core and periphery countries. These are the core regions in decline or
periphery regions attempting to improve their economic position. These countries are sometimes
exploited by core countries, but they also may exploit periphery countries themselves. For
example India is largely dependent on core countries for capital but India has a growing
technology industry and an emerging consumer market.
The main characteristics of this theory are given below:
 The world systems theory is established on a three-level hierarchy consisting of core,
periphery, and semi-periphery areas.
 The core countries dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw
materials.
 The peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital.
 The semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.
 This theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.
According to Wallerstein, Core countries e.g Japan, Germany are dominant, capitalist countries
are characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization. Core countries are capital
intensive, have high wages, high technology production patterns and lower amount of labor
exploitation and coercion. Peripheral countries e.g most African countries and lower income
countries in South America are dependent on core countries for capital and less industrialized

14. and urbanized. Peripheral countries are usually agrarian, have low literacy rate and lack
consistent internet access. Semi peripheral countries like South Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, Brazil,
India, South Africa are less developed than core nations more developed than peripheral nations.
They are the weaker members of ‘advanced’ regions or the leading members of former colonial
ones.
Recent trends view
Post development theory
Post development theory (also post-development, or anti-development) holds that the whole
concept and practice of development is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over the rest
of the world. Post development thought arose in the 1980s out of criticisms voiced against
development projects and development theory, which justified them. Post-development theory
arose in the 1980s and 1990s through the works of scholars like A. Escobar, G. Esteva, M.
Rahnema, W. Sachs, J. Ferguson, S. Latouche, G. Rist and F. Sabelli. According to Wolfgang
Sachs, a leading member of the post-development school, "the idea of development stands like a
ruin in the intellectual landscape" and "it is time to dismantle this mental structure." To cite an
example of this "mental structure", development theorists point out how the concept of
development has resulted in the hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations, where the
developed nations are seen as more advanced and superior to the underdeveloped nations that are
conceived as inferior, in need of help from the developed nations, and desiring to be like the
developed nations. The post-development school of thought points out that the models of
development are often ethnocentric (in this case Eurocentric), universalist, and based on western
models of industrialization that are unsustainable in this world of limited resources and
ineffective for their ignorance of the local, cultural and historical contexts of the peoples to
which they are applied.
Major aspects of post development theory
Development as ideology

15. Development as an ideology and a social vision is ingrained in the ideals of modernization,
which holds western economic structure and society as a universal model for others to follow
and emulate. Rooted in western influence, the developmental discourse reflects the unequal
power relations between the west and the rest of the world, whereby the western knowledge of
development, approach toward development, and conception of what development entails, as
well as perceptions of progress, directs the course for the rest of the world.
Reviewing development
Influenced by Ivan Illich and other critics of colonialism and post colonialism, a number of post-
development theorists like Arturo Escobar and Gustavo Esteva have challenged the very
meaning of development. According to them, the way we understand development is rooted in
the earlier colonial discourse that depicts the North as "advanced" and "progressive", and the
South as "backward", "degenerate" and "primitive". While claiming that what was new was the
definition of development in terms of an escape from underdevelopment. Since the latter referred
to two-thirds of the world, this meant that most societies were made to see themselves as having
fallen into the undignified condition of "underdevelopment", and thus to look outside of their
own cultures for salvation.
Critique of ethnocentrism and universalism
 Development is seen as requiring the loss, or indeed the deliberate extermination
(ethnocide) of indigenous culture or other psychologically and environmentally rich and
rewarding modes of life. As a result, formerly satisfactory ways of life become
dissatisfying because development changes people's perception of themselves.
 Development is seen as a set of knowledges, interventions and worldviews (in short,
discourses) which are also powers: to intervene, to transform and to rule. Post-
development critiques challenge the notion of a single path to development and demands
acknowledgment of diversity of cultural perspectives and priorities. The post-
development approach attempts to overcome the inequality of this discourse by opening
up spaces for non-Western peoples and their concerns.Post development theory is, above

16. all, a critique of the standard assumptions about progress: who possesses the key to it and
how it may be implemented.
Alternatives to development
It provides alternative methods for bringing about positive change. The post development school
proposes a particular vision of society removed from the discourse of development, modernity,
politics, cultural and economical influences from the west, and market oriented and centralized
authoritarian societies. The post-development school of thought is interested (in terms of
searching for an alternative to development) in "local culture and knowledge; a critical stance
toward established scientific discourses; and the defense and promotion of localized, pluralistic
grassroots movements." Furthermore, post-development theorists advocate for structural
changes. According to Escobar, post-developmental thinking believes that the economy must be
based around solidarity and reciprocity; policy must focus on direct democracy; and knowledge
systems should be traditional, or at least a hybrid of modern and traditional knowledge.
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (Brundtland
Commission). Sustainable development (SD) is a process for meeting human development goals
while maintaining the ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural
resources and ecosystem services upon which the economy and society depend. Sustainable
development is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources necessary to provide for
the needs of future generations of life on the planet. It is a process that envisions a desirable
future state for human societies in which living conditions and resource-use continue to meet
human needs without undermining the "integrity, stability and beauty" of natural biotic systems.
Dimensions of sustainable development
Sustainable development has been described in terms of three dimensions, domains or pillars. In
the three-dimension model, these are seen as "economic, environmental and social" or "ecology,
economy and equity" this has been expanded by some authors to include a fourth pillar of
culture, institutions or governance.

17. Ecology
The ecological sustainability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans
and their natural, social and built environments. Fundamental human needs such as the
availability and quality of air, water, food and shelter are also the ecological foundations for
sustainable development.
Agriculture
Sustainable agriculture consists of environmentally-friendly methods of farming that allow the
production of crops or livestock without damage to human or natural systems. It involves
preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources.
Energy
Sustainable energy is the sustainable provision of energy that is clean and lasts for a long period
of time. Unlike the fossil fuel that most of the countries are using, renewable energy only
produces little or even no pollution.
Environment
Environmental sustainability concerns the natural environment and how it endures and remains
diverse and productive. Since natural resources are derived from the environment, the state of
air, water, and the climate are of particular concern. An unsustainable situation occurs
when natural capital (the sum total of nature's resources) is used up faster than it can be
replenished. Sustainability requires that human activity only uses nature's resources at a rate at
which they can be replenished naturally.

18. Transportation
Transportation is a large contributor to greenhouse gas emissions. It is said that one-third of all
gasses produced are due to transportation.[33] Some western countries are making transportation
more sustainable in both long-term and short-term implementations.
Economics
It has been suggested that because of rural poverty and overexploitation, environmental
resources should be treated as important economic assets, called natural capital. Economic
development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. Sustainable
development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a
decrease in resource consumption.
Politics
Sustainable development indicators are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to
inform public policy-making. The International Institute for Sustainable Development has
similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing
measurable entities and metrics. The framework consists of six core areas, international trade and
investment, economic policy, climate change and energy, measurement and assessment, natural
resource management, and the role of communication technologies in sustainable development.
Culture
A new perspective and points to the relation between culture and sustainable development
through a dual approach: developing a solid cultural policy and advocating a cultural dimension
in all public policies.
Goals of Sustainable development
 No poverty
 Zero hunger
 Good health & well being
 Quality education
 Gender equality

19.  Clean water & sanitation
 Affordable & clean energy
 Decent work & economic growth
 Industry innovation & infrastructure
 Reduced inequality
 Sustainable cities & communities
 Responsible consumption & production
 Climate action
 Life below water
 Life on land
 Peace justice and strong institutions
 Partnerships for the goals
Human development theory
Human development theory is a theory which uses ideas from different origins, such
as ecology, sustainable development, feminism and welfare economics. It wants to avoid
normative politics of most so-called "green economics" by justifying its theses strictly
in ecology, economics and sound social science, and by working within a context
of globalization. and is focused on how social capital and instructional capital can be deployed to
optimize the overall value of human capital in an economy. The role of individual capital within
that ecology, and the adaptation of the individual to live well within it, is a major focus of these
theories. Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq are the most well-known human development
theorists. The work of Sen is focused on capabilities: what people can do, and be. It is these
capabilities, rather than the income or goods that they receive (as in the Basic Needs approach),
that determine their well being. This core idea also underlies the construction of the Human
Development Index, a human-focused measure of development pioneered by the UNDP in its
Human Development Reports.

20. Accordingly, human development theory is a major synthesis that is probably not confined
within the bounds of conventional economics or political science, nor even the political
economy that relates the two.
Another angle is Sustainable Human Development: Triple Bottom line ecology-economy-social
can be translated to human dimensions as:
 Human economy: sustainable action - the ability to perform well and on long term (stress,
priority, focus and time management)
 Human social dimension: sustainable relations - the ability to sustain relations and go
through ordeals together (family, teams, clients, stakeholders)
 Human ecology: health, self-awareness, vocation, excellence, talent.
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