The document discusses theories about why and when people help others and how to increase helping behaviors. It covers: 1) Reasons for helping including social exchange of rewards, social norms of reciprocity and responsibility, and evolutionary psychology of kin selection and reciprocity. 2) Factors influencing when helping occurs, such as the bystander effect where more bystanders means less helping, and time pressures reducing assistance. 3) Individual differences in helping, with personality traits like empathy and efficacy predicting more assistance, and religious faith enabling long-term altruism. 4) Ways to boost helping by reducing ambiguity, using persuasion techniques to increase responsibility or guilt, and teaching altruism directly.

1. HelpingHelping

2.  Why do we help?Why do we help?
 When will we help?When will we help?
 Who will help?Who will help?
 How can we increase helping?How can we increase helping?
HelpingHelping

3. AltruismAltruism

4. A motive to increase another’s welfareA motive to increase another’s welfare
without conscious regard for one’s self-without conscious regard for one’s self-
interests.interests.
Altruism:Altruism:

5. EgoismEgoism

6. A motive to increase one’s own welfare.A motive to increase one’s own welfare.
Egoism:Egoism:

7. 1.) Why do we help?1.) Why do we help?

8. Social-exchangeSocial-exchange
Social NormsSocial Norms
Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology
Why do we help? (Why do we help? (TheoriesTheories))

9. Social ExchangeSocial Exchange

10. the theory that human interactions arethe theory that human interactions are
transactions that aim to maximize one’stransactions that aim to maximize one’s
rewards and minimize one’s costs.rewards and minimize one’s costs.
Social-exchange theory:Social-exchange theory:

11. RewardsRewards

12.  External rewardsExternal rewards
 Internal rewardsInternal rewards
Rewards:Rewards:

13.  ExternalExternal – “we give to get”.– “we give to get”.
 InternalInternal – “our sense of self-worth”.– “our sense of self-worth”.
Rewards:Rewards:

14.  GuiltGuilt
 Feel bad-do goodFeel bad-do good
 Feel good-do goodFeel good-do good
Internal Rewards:Internal Rewards:
((emotional state/personal traitsemotional state/personal traits))

15. Social NormsSocial Norms

16.  are social expectations.are social expectations.
 prescribes proper behavior.prescribes proper behavior.
Social Norms:Social Norms:

17.  The Reciprocity NormThe Reciprocity Norm
 The Social-Responsibility NormThe Social-Responsibility Norm
Two Social Norms:Two Social Norms:

18.  The Reciprocity NormThe Reciprocity Norm – an expectation– an expectation
that people will help, not hurt, those whothat people will help, not hurt, those who
have helped them.have helped them.
 The Social-Responsibility NormThe Social-Responsibility Norm – an– an
expectation that people will help thoseexpectation that people will help those
needing help.needing help.
Two Social Norms:Two Social Norms:

19. Gender and Receiving HelpGender and Receiving Help

20.  WomenWomen offered help equally to males andoffered help equally to males and
females, whereasfemales, whereas MenMen offered more helpoffered more help
when the persons in need were females.when the persons in need were females.
Gender & Receiving Help:Gender & Receiving Help:

21. Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology

22.  the study of the evolution of cognitionthe study of the evolution of cognition
and behavior using the principles ofand behavior using the principles of
natural selection.natural selection.
 the theory contends that the essence ofthe theory contends that the essence of
life is survival.life is survival.
Evolutionary Psychology:Evolutionary Psychology:

23.  Kin ProtectionKin Protection
 kin selection-kin selection- the idea that evolution has selectedthe idea that evolution has selected
altruism towards one’s close relatives to enhancealtruism towards one’s close relatives to enhance
the survival of mutually shared genes.the survival of mutually shared genes.
 ReciprocityReciprocity
Two types of self-sacrificialTwo types of self-sacrificial
helping (helping (Evolutionary Psychology TheoryEvolutionary Psychology Theory))

24. Comparison of TheoriesComparison of Theories
Theory Level of
Explanation
Externally
Helping
Intrinsic
Helping
Social-Social-
exchangeexchange
PsychologicalPsychological External rewards for
helping
Inner rewards for
helping
Social NormsSocial Norms SociologicalSociological Reciprocity norm Social-responsibility
norm
EvolutionaryEvolutionary BiologicalBiological Reciprocity Kin selection

25. Genuine Altruism/EmpathyGenuine Altruism/Empathy

26. the vicarious experience of another’sthe vicarious experience of another’s
feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes.feelings; putting oneself in another’s shoes.
Empathy:Empathy:

27. (2) When will we help?(2) When will we help?

28.  As the number of bystanders increases,As the number of bystanders increases,
any given bystander is less likely toany given bystander is less likely to
notice the incident, less likely to assumenotice the incident, less likely to assume
responsibility for taking action.responsibility for taking action.
 Lone bystanders were more likely to help.Lone bystanders were more likely to help.
Number of Bystanders:Number of Bystanders:

29.  The finding that a person is less likely toThe finding that a person is less likely to
provide help when there are otherprovide help when there are other
bystanders.bystanders.
Bystander effect:Bystander effect:

30. Noticing/InterpretingNoticing/Interpreting
Assuming ResponsibilityAssuming Responsibility

31.  Prosocial models do promote altruism.Prosocial models do promote altruism.
ExampleExample: New Jersey shoppers were most: New Jersey shoppers were most
likely to drop money in a Salvation Armylikely to drop money in a Salvation Army
kettle if they had seen someone else dokettle if they had seen someone else do
the same.the same.
Helping when someone else does:Helping when someone else does:

32.  A person not in a hurry may stop andA person not in a hurry may stop and
offer help to a person in distress. Aoffer help to a person in distress. A
person in a hurry is likely to keep going.person in a hurry is likely to keep going.
(Darley & Batson - Researchers)(Darley & Batson - Researchers)
Time Pressures:Time Pressures:

33.  We tend to help those whom we perceiveWe tend to help those whom we perceive
as being similar to us.as being similar to us.
Similarity:Similarity:

34. (3) Who will help?(3) Who will help?

35.  Attitude and trait predict averageAttitude and trait predict average
behavior across many situations morebehavior across many situations more
accurately.accurately.
 IndividualIndividual differencesdifferences – “some people are– “some people are
reliably more helpful”.reliably more helpful”.
Personality Traits:Personality Traits:

36.  NetworkNetwork traitstraits – “those high in positive– “those high in positive
emotionality, empathy & self-efficacy areemotionality, empathy & self-efficacy are
most likely concerned and helpful.”most likely concerned and helpful.”
 Personality influences how particularPersonality influences how particular
people react to particular situations.people react to particular situations.
Personality Traits:Personality Traits:

37.  Predicts long-term altruism, as reflected IPredicts long-term altruism, as reflected I
volunteerism & charitable contributions.volunteerism & charitable contributions.
Religious Faith:Religious Faith:

38. (4) How can we increase helping?(4) How can we increase helping?

39.  ReduceReduce the ambiguity andthe ambiguity and increaseincrease
responsibility.responsibility.
 UseUse door-in-the-facedoor-in-the-face effecteffect technique totechnique to
evoke guilt feelings or concern for self-evoke guilt feelings or concern for self-
image.image.
 TeachTeach altruismaltruism..
3 ways to increase helping:3 ways to increase helping:

40.  Door-in-the-faceDoor-in-the-face effecteffect – A strategy for– A strategy for
gaining a concession.gaining a concession.
 Overjustification effectOverjustification effect – the result of– the result of
bribing people to do what they alreadybribing people to do what they already
like doing; they may then see theirlike doing; they may then see their
actions as externally controlled ratheractions as externally controlled rather
than intrinsically appealing.than intrinsically appealing.