This document provides information about the elements in group 3A of the periodic table, also known as the boron group. It discusses their physical and chemical properties, including their metallic character, softness, isotopes, oxidation states, and abundance. It also describes several important chemical reactions for these elements, such as their reactions with oxygen to form oxides and oxoacids, with hydrogen to form hydrides, with halogens to form halides, and with air. Finally, it outlines some major applications of these elements, such as the use of boron in ceramics and semiconductors, aluminum in transportation and packaging, gallium and indium in electronics, and thallium in optics.
This document contains information about various chemical elements in the boron group including their properties and uses. It discusses aluminum, its discovery in 1825, properties such as low density and good corrosion resistance. It is used in various products. Gallium, indium and thallium are also covered including their atomic structure, physical and chemical properties, common uses, and discovery details.
Salt hydrolysis can produce acidic, basic, or neutral solutions depending on the salt. Salts are classified based on whether they contain strong acids/bases or weak acids/bases. Salts of strong acids and bases do not undergo hydrolysis and produce neutral solutions. Salts of weak acids and strong bases produce basic solutions, while salts of strong acids and weak bases produce acidic solutions. Salts of weak acids and bases may produce neutral, acidic, or basic solutions. Solubility products define the solubility of sparingly soluble salts in solution. The common ion effect suppresses the dissociation of weak electrolytes in the presence of strong electrolytes with a common ion. Solubility products and common ion effects can be applied
This document discusses the properties of alkaline earth metals, specifically beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. It covers their occurrence in nature, physical properties like melting points and flame tests, and similarities between beryllium and magnesium, including their tendency to form covalent compounds and hydrides.
The document discusses redox reactions, including definitions of oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agents and reducing agents. It provides examples of redox reactions like magnesium burning in oxygen, bromine water oxidizing iron(II) ions, and the displacement of metals in salt solutions. It also describes how electrons are transferred during redox reactions and how redox reactions can occur at a distance using a salt bridge.
Group 15 of the periodic table contains nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. These elements share the electronic configuration of ns2np3 and can exhibit oxidation states of -3, +3, and +5, with the stability of the +5 state decreasing down the group due to the inert pair effect. The atomic radii increase down the group, while ionization energies and electronegativity decrease. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. These trends in properties are due to the increasing size and metallic character of the elements down the group.
There are four main types of hydrides: saline (ionic), metallic, covalent, and dimeric. Saline hydrides contain hydrogen as a negatively charged ion that reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen gas. Metallic hydrides consist of hydrogen ions and metal atoms in an electron sea. Covalent hydrides involve shared electron pairs between hydrogen and nonmetals, forming volatile liquids and gases. Hydrides have many applications including use as reducing agents, bases, drying agents, and hydrogen storage in batteries and fuel cells.
This document discusses the properties and characteristics of alkaline earth metals. It begins by defining alkaline earth metals as group 2 elements with an outer electron configuration of ns2. Some key points made include:
- Alkaline earth metals have higher ionization energies than alkali metals. Ionization energy decreases down the group as atomic size increases.
- Their physical properties include being silvery-white, soft metals that are stronger oxidizers than alkali metals. They impart unique flame colors.
- Chemically, they readily react with oxygen, water and halogens. Reactivity increases down the group. They form basic hydroxides except for beryllium.
- The document also discusses trends
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
This document contains information about various chemical elements in the boron group including their properties and uses. It discusses aluminum, its discovery in 1825, properties such as low density and good corrosion resistance. It is used in various products. Gallium, indium and thallium are also covered including their atomic structure, physical and chemical properties, common uses, and discovery details.
Salt hydrolysis can produce acidic, basic, or neutral solutions depending on the salt. Salts are classified based on whether they contain strong acids/bases or weak acids/bases. Salts of strong acids and bases do not undergo hydrolysis and produce neutral solutions. Salts of weak acids and strong bases produce basic solutions, while salts of strong acids and weak bases produce acidic solutions. Salts of weak acids and bases may produce neutral, acidic, or basic solutions. Solubility products define the solubility of sparingly soluble salts in solution. The common ion effect suppresses the dissociation of weak electrolytes in the presence of strong electrolytes with a common ion. Solubility products and common ion effects can be applied
This document discusses the properties of alkaline earth metals, specifically beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. It covers their occurrence in nature, physical properties like melting points and flame tests, and similarities between beryllium and magnesium, including their tendency to form covalent compounds and hydrides.
The document discusses redox reactions, including definitions of oxidation, reduction, oxidizing agents and reducing agents. It provides examples of redox reactions like magnesium burning in oxygen, bromine water oxidizing iron(II) ions, and the displacement of metals in salt solutions. It also describes how electrons are transferred during redox reactions and how redox reactions can occur at a distance using a salt bridge.
Group 15 of the periodic table contains nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. These elements share the electronic configuration of ns2np3 and can exhibit oxidation states of -3, +3, and +5, with the stability of the +5 state decreasing down the group due to the inert pair effect. The atomic radii increase down the group, while ionization energies and electronegativity decrease. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. These trends in properties are due to the increasing size and metallic character of the elements down the group.
There are four main types of hydrides: saline (ionic), metallic, covalent, and dimeric. Saline hydrides contain hydrogen as a negatively charged ion that reacts violently with water to produce hydrogen gas. Metallic hydrides consist of hydrogen ions and metal atoms in an electron sea. Covalent hydrides involve shared electron pairs between hydrogen and nonmetals, forming volatile liquids and gases. Hydrides have many applications including use as reducing agents, bases, drying agents, and hydrogen storage in batteries and fuel cells.
This document discusses the properties and characteristics of alkaline earth metals. It begins by defining alkaline earth metals as group 2 elements with an outer electron configuration of ns2. Some key points made include:
- Alkaline earth metals have higher ionization energies than alkali metals. Ionization energy decreases down the group as atomic size increases.
- Their physical properties include being silvery-white, soft metals that are stronger oxidizers than alkali metals. They impart unique flame colors.
- Chemically, they readily react with oxygen, water and halogens. Reactivity increases down the group. They form basic hydroxides except for beryllium.
- The document also discusses trends
Revision Slides for AQA A-Level Chemistry on the Group Two Elements. Designed for the new Exam Series of June 2017, but relevant for all series and exam boards.
This document discusses coordination chemistry concepts including different types of salts such as simple salts, double salts, and complex salts. It defines coordination compounds and complex ions, and describes Werner's coordination theory which proposed that metals have primary and secondary valences. Ligands are defined as electron-rich species that bond to metals. Different classifications of ligands and coordination numbers are provided. The coordination sphere and effective atomic number concept are also summarized.
This document provides information about the boron family of elements. It discusses the occurrence, properties, and reactions of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium. It focuses on boron compounds such as boranes, diborane, and borohydrides. It discusses the inert pair effect which causes the stability of lower oxidation states for heavier group 13 elements. The document also provides background on fullerenes including their discovery and C60 buckminsterfullerene.
1. The document discusses bioinorganic chemistry, which involves the roles of inorganic elements in biological processes. It focuses on essential and trace elements, and metalloporphyrins like hemoglobin and chlorophyll.
2. Hemoglobin contains heme groups with iron centers that bind oxygen. Chlorophyll contains magnesium and is responsible for photosynthesis. Both play crucial roles in biological functions.
3. The document also examines the structures and functions of heme, hemoglobin, and chlorophyll in detail. It analyzes how inorganic elements like iron, magnesium, and porphyrin rings enable key processes in living organisms.
Ionic solids are composed of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions arranged in a 3D array. The electrostatic attractions between opposite charges hold the ions in fixed positions, making ionic solids hard and brittle. The melting point of ionic solids is generally over 150 degrees C because strong electrostatic forces must be overcome for melting to occur. The radius ratio rule can be used to predict the coordination number of ions based on the ratio of cation to anion radii, with different ratios corresponding to different coordination geometries like tetrahedral or octahedral. While useful, the radius ratio rule has limitations as it treats ions as hard spheres and does not account for variations in effective ionic radii.
This document discusses methods for separating lanthanide ions using ion exchange and solvent extraction. In ion exchange, lanthanide ions in solution are passed through a resin column and interact differently with the resin based on their size, allowing for separation. Smaller ions interact more strongly and elute first. Solvent extraction involves dissolving lanthanide ions in water and adding an immiscible organic solvent. The partition coefficient determines how ions distribute between the two solvents, allowing separation based on differences in this value for different ions through multiple extractions.
The document discusses the actinide series of elements in the periodic table. It covers the properties and uses of actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, and later actinides like curium. The actinide series includes radioactive elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103. They have similar chemical properties and most exhibit oxidation states of +3 and +4. Many actinides are used as nuclear fuel or in specialized detection devices.
This document discusses the theory of acid-base indicators and their use in titrations. It explains that indicators change color within a certain pH range, with examples like methyl orange changing from pink to yellow between pH 3.2-4.5. Two theories are presented for how indicators work: Ostwald's theory, where color change is due to ionization, and the quinonoid theory, where indicators exist in different tautomeric forms with different colors. Phenolphthalein is used to illustrate Ostwald's theory, changing from colorless to pink as it ionizes more in alkaline conditions. Methyl orange is a weak base that changes from yellow to red depending on whether its ionized or unionized form
Group iiiA elements and compounds of boron - Fsc. 2ND YEAR CHEMISTRYHumnaMehmood
This document provides information about the group IIIA elements, with a focus on boron and aluminum. It discusses their occurrence in nature, common compounds, and some key properties. Boron is the only nonmetallic element in the group. It forms covalent and coordination compounds rather than ionic compounds. Important boron compounds discussed include borax, boric acid, and borates. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust and commonly occurs as aluminosilicate minerals like feldspar.
The document discusses various factors that affect the stability of metal complexes. It explains that complexes formed with ligands having higher charge and smaller size are generally more stable. It also discusses the Irving-Williams order of stability and the factors of charge to radius ratio, electronegativity, and basicity of ligands. The chelate effect is described as an important ligand effect where multidentate ligands form more stable complexes due to entropy gains. Kinetic and thermodynamic stability are distinguished from reactivity concepts of labile and inert complexes.
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
The document discusses the properties of group 16 (chalcogen) elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium). Key points include:
- They have the general electronic configuration of ns2np4 and can exhibit oxidation states of -2, +2, +4, and +6.
- Properties vary periodically down the group with atomic size increasing and ionization energy/electronegativity decreasing.
- Oxygen is a gas that forms strong diatomic bonds while sulfur exists as solid rings.
- Important compounds formed include hydrides, halides like sulfur hexafluoride, and oxoacids such as sulfuric acid.
- O
The document discusses the chemical properties of alkali metals. It explains that alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen and water. The reactivity increases down the group as the atoms get larger, shielding the outer electrons from the nucleus and making them easier to lose. Equations for reactions of lithium, sodium, and potassium with oxygen, water, and other substances are provided. Flame tests for group 2 metals are also discussed.
The document discusses Pearson's Hard and Soft Acid and Base (HSAB) theory, which states that hard acids prefer to bond with hard bases and soft acids prefer to bond with soft bases. It provides examples of hard and soft ligands and metal ions. Key points include:
- Hard metals have high charge, small size, and are not easily polarized, while soft metals are the opposite.
- The theory can be used to explain the bonding preferences of ambidentate ligands like thiocyanate based on whether they bond to hard or soft metals through nitrogen or sulfur.
- The theory has applications in explaining reactivity patterns in inorganic reactions, organic reactions involving acids and bases of different hardness, and precipitation reactions.
In this slide you can get about ,what are oxides and how they classify. In this slides I classify the oxides with respect to nature of oxides as well as the oxygen content in it.
The document discusses the lanthanides and actinides, which are groups of elements found below the main periodic table. There are a total of 30 elements between the lanthanides (elements 57-71) and actinides (elements 89-103). The lanthanides and actinides are often referred to as the "inner transition metals" and exhibit similar chemical properties to lanthanum and actinium, respectively.
Cycloalkane stability is explained by Baeyer's Strain Theory, which states that deviations from the ideal tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5° impose strain. Cyclopropane has the most angle strain due to 60° bonds, making it highly unstable and prone to ring-opening. Cyclobutane has less strain from 90° bonds. Larger rings like cyclopentane and cyclohexane have less strain as their bond angles are closer to 109.5°. Baeyer assumed rings were flat, but they are actually puckered, allowing bonds to approach 109.5°. Rings larger than cyclopentane have little strain and are as stable as open-chain alkanes.
This document discusses the principles and procedures of conductometric analysis. Conductometric analysis measures the electrical conductivity of a solution due to ion mobility. The conductivity is affected by factors like number, charge, size of ions, and temperature. It involves titrating a solution containing ions and measuring the change in conductivity. This allows determination of the endpoint of the titration from the plotted conductivity-volume curve. The document defines key terms, describes instrumentation including conductivity cells and electrodes, and discusses different types of conductometric titrations like acid-base, redox, and complexometric titrations. Conductometric titrations provide accurate results for analyses without requiring indicators.
The document discusses metallobiomolecules, which are biomolecules associated with metal ions that play important roles in biological processes. Metallobiomolecules can be classified based on their molecular components and functions. Key classes include oxygen-binding proteins like hemoglobin and myoglobin, which transport and store oxygen using iron ions. Hemoglobin is a tetramer found in red blood cells that carries oxygen to tissues, while myoglobin is a monomer that stores oxygen in muscles. The document provides details on the structure of hemoglobin, which consists of globin protein chains and heme groups containing iron.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
- The document discusses the p-block elements in the boron family, including their occurrence, characteristics, chemical properties, and compounds.
- Boron is a rare element found in borax and boric acid, while aluminum is the most abundant metal found in bauxite. Gallium, indium, and thallium are less common and found in sulfide ores.
- The elements have the outer electronic configuration ns2np1 and exist in oxidation states of +1 and +3, with the stability of +1 increasing down the group. They form covalent bonds and react to form oxides, nitrides, halides, and hydroxides.
This document discusses coordination chemistry concepts including different types of salts such as simple salts, double salts, and complex salts. It defines coordination compounds and complex ions, and describes Werner's coordination theory which proposed that metals have primary and secondary valences. Ligands are defined as electron-rich species that bond to metals. Different classifications of ligands and coordination numbers are provided. The coordination sphere and effective atomic number concept are also summarized.
This document provides information about the boron family of elements. It discusses the occurrence, properties, and reactions of boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium. It focuses on boron compounds such as boranes, diborane, and borohydrides. It discusses the inert pair effect which causes the stability of lower oxidation states for heavier group 13 elements. The document also provides background on fullerenes including their discovery and C60 buckminsterfullerene.
1. The document discusses bioinorganic chemistry, which involves the roles of inorganic elements in biological processes. It focuses on essential and trace elements, and metalloporphyrins like hemoglobin and chlorophyll.
2. Hemoglobin contains heme groups with iron centers that bind oxygen. Chlorophyll contains magnesium and is responsible for photosynthesis. Both play crucial roles in biological functions.
3. The document also examines the structures and functions of heme, hemoglobin, and chlorophyll in detail. It analyzes how inorganic elements like iron, magnesium, and porphyrin rings enable key processes in living organisms.
Ionic solids are composed of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions arranged in a 3D array. The electrostatic attractions between opposite charges hold the ions in fixed positions, making ionic solids hard and brittle. The melting point of ionic solids is generally over 150 degrees C because strong electrostatic forces must be overcome for melting to occur. The radius ratio rule can be used to predict the coordination number of ions based on the ratio of cation to anion radii, with different ratios corresponding to different coordination geometries like tetrahedral or octahedral. While useful, the radius ratio rule has limitations as it treats ions as hard spheres and does not account for variations in effective ionic radii.
This document discusses methods for separating lanthanide ions using ion exchange and solvent extraction. In ion exchange, lanthanide ions in solution are passed through a resin column and interact differently with the resin based on their size, allowing for separation. Smaller ions interact more strongly and elute first. Solvent extraction involves dissolving lanthanide ions in water and adding an immiscible organic solvent. The partition coefficient determines how ions distribute between the two solvents, allowing separation based on differences in this value for different ions through multiple extractions.
The document discusses the actinide series of elements in the periodic table. It covers the properties and uses of actinium, thorium, protactinium, uranium, neptunium, plutonium, americium, and later actinides like curium. The actinide series includes radioactive elements with atomic numbers from 89 to 103. They have similar chemical properties and most exhibit oxidation states of +3 and +4. Many actinides are used as nuclear fuel or in specialized detection devices.
This document discusses the theory of acid-base indicators and their use in titrations. It explains that indicators change color within a certain pH range, with examples like methyl orange changing from pink to yellow between pH 3.2-4.5. Two theories are presented for how indicators work: Ostwald's theory, where color change is due to ionization, and the quinonoid theory, where indicators exist in different tautomeric forms with different colors. Phenolphthalein is used to illustrate Ostwald's theory, changing from colorless to pink as it ionizes more in alkaline conditions. Methyl orange is a weak base that changes from yellow to red depending on whether its ionized or unionized form
Group iiiA elements and compounds of boron - Fsc. 2ND YEAR CHEMISTRYHumnaMehmood
This document provides information about the group IIIA elements, with a focus on boron and aluminum. It discusses their occurrence in nature, common compounds, and some key properties. Boron is the only nonmetallic element in the group. It forms covalent and coordination compounds rather than ionic compounds. Important boron compounds discussed include borax, boric acid, and borates. Aluminum is the most abundant metal in the Earth's crust and commonly occurs as aluminosilicate minerals like feldspar.
The document discusses various factors that affect the stability of metal complexes. It explains that complexes formed with ligands having higher charge and smaller size are generally more stable. It also discusses the Irving-Williams order of stability and the factors of charge to radius ratio, electronegativity, and basicity of ligands. The chelate effect is described as an important ligand effect where multidentate ligands form more stable complexes due to entropy gains. Kinetic and thermodynamic stability are distinguished from reactivity concepts of labile and inert complexes.
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
The document discusses the properties of group 16 (chalcogen) elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium). Key points include:
- They have the general electronic configuration of ns2np4 and can exhibit oxidation states of -2, +2, +4, and +6.
- Properties vary periodically down the group with atomic size increasing and ionization energy/electronegativity decreasing.
- Oxygen is a gas that forms strong diatomic bonds while sulfur exists as solid rings.
- Important compounds formed include hydrides, halides like sulfur hexafluoride, and oxoacids such as sulfuric acid.
- O
The document discusses the chemical properties of alkali metals. It explains that alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen and water. The reactivity increases down the group as the atoms get larger, shielding the outer electrons from the nucleus and making them easier to lose. Equations for reactions of lithium, sodium, and potassium with oxygen, water, and other substances are provided. Flame tests for group 2 metals are also discussed.
The document discusses Pearson's Hard and Soft Acid and Base (HSAB) theory, which states that hard acids prefer to bond with hard bases and soft acids prefer to bond with soft bases. It provides examples of hard and soft ligands and metal ions. Key points include:
- Hard metals have high charge, small size, and are not easily polarized, while soft metals are the opposite.
- The theory can be used to explain the bonding preferences of ambidentate ligands like thiocyanate based on whether they bond to hard or soft metals through nitrogen or sulfur.
- The theory has applications in explaining reactivity patterns in inorganic reactions, organic reactions involving acids and bases of different hardness, and precipitation reactions.
In this slide you can get about ,what are oxides and how they classify. In this slides I classify the oxides with respect to nature of oxides as well as the oxygen content in it.
The document discusses the lanthanides and actinides, which are groups of elements found below the main periodic table. There are a total of 30 elements between the lanthanides (elements 57-71) and actinides (elements 89-103). The lanthanides and actinides are often referred to as the "inner transition metals" and exhibit similar chemical properties to lanthanum and actinium, respectively.
Cycloalkane stability is explained by Baeyer's Strain Theory, which states that deviations from the ideal tetrahedral bond angle of 109.5° impose strain. Cyclopropane has the most angle strain due to 60° bonds, making it highly unstable and prone to ring-opening. Cyclobutane has less strain from 90° bonds. Larger rings like cyclopentane and cyclohexane have less strain as their bond angles are closer to 109.5°. Baeyer assumed rings were flat, but they are actually puckered, allowing bonds to approach 109.5°. Rings larger than cyclopentane have little strain and are as stable as open-chain alkanes.
This document discusses the principles and procedures of conductometric analysis. Conductometric analysis measures the electrical conductivity of a solution due to ion mobility. The conductivity is affected by factors like number, charge, size of ions, and temperature. It involves titrating a solution containing ions and measuring the change in conductivity. This allows determination of the endpoint of the titration from the plotted conductivity-volume curve. The document defines key terms, describes instrumentation including conductivity cells and electrodes, and discusses different types of conductometric titrations like acid-base, redox, and complexometric titrations. Conductometric titrations provide accurate results for analyses without requiring indicators.
The document discusses metallobiomolecules, which are biomolecules associated with metal ions that play important roles in biological processes. Metallobiomolecules can be classified based on their molecular components and functions. Key classes include oxygen-binding proteins like hemoglobin and myoglobin, which transport and store oxygen using iron ions. Hemoglobin is a tetramer found in red blood cells that carries oxygen to tissues, while myoglobin is a monomer that stores oxygen in muscles. The document provides details on the structure of hemoglobin, which consists of globin protein chains and heme groups containing iron.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
- The document discusses the p-block elements in the boron family, including their occurrence, characteristics, chemical properties, and compounds.
- Boron is a rare element found in borax and boric acid, while aluminum is the most abundant metal found in bauxite. Gallium, indium, and thallium are less common and found in sulfide ores.
- The elements have the outer electronic configuration ns2np1 and exist in oxidation states of +1 and +3, with the stability of +1 increasing down the group. They form covalent bonds and react to form oxides, nitrides, halides, and hydroxides.
The document discusses the boron and carbon family (groups 13-14) of the periodic table. It provides information on their electronic configurations, atomic properties, oxidation states, chemical properties including reactivity with air, acids, bases and halogens. It notes the anomalous properties of boron compared to other family members due to the absence of d-orbitals. Examples of compounds in each group are also given such as borax, boric acid, aluminium chloride and oxides.
The document summarizes the properties of elements in Group 13 (boron family) of the periodic table. It discusses their electron configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. Boron is the only nonmetal in the group. Aluminum is the most abundant and widely used member. The properties of these elements trend from nonmetallic (boron) to metallic (thallium) down the group. Their compounds typically exhibit oxidation state of +3, forming oxides, halides, and other salts with the formula MX3 where M is the group 13 element.
The document discusses the boron family (Group 13) of elements. It begins with an introduction stating that boron is the only non-metal in the group. The other members are metals and are called p-block elements. Aluminum is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust. The elements show a stable oxidation state of +3, except for thallium. The document then discusses the physical and chemical properties, compounds, and extraction methods of the various Group 13 elements.
The document discusses the properties of elements in Group 13 of the periodic table, which includes boron, aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium. It provides details on their electronic configuration, oxidation states, physical properties, and reactions. It also describes the molecular structure of diborane (B2H6) and discusses boranes, which are compounds composed of boron and hydrogen that are analogues of alkanes. Diborane has a unique three-centered two-electron bonding arrangement between its bridging hydrogen atoms.
Although elemental aluminum is stable in the form of foil and .docxdaniahendric
Although elemental aluminum is stable in the form of foil and sheets, alu :,
and powder are pyrophoric materials that pose the risk of fire and explosion ~~tun dust
num burns violently in air with an intensely bright, white and orange flame · e alutni.
mixture of aluminum oxide and aluminum nitride. producing a
4Al(s) + 30z(g) 2Al203(s)
Alnminum Oxygen Aluminum oxide
2Al (s) + N2(g) 2AIN(s)
Aluminum Nitrogen Aluminum nitride
These reactions may be initiated by the combustion of hydrogen, produced when th
and powder react with atmospheric moisture. e dust
2Al(s) + 3H20(/) Al203(s) + 3H2(g)
Aluminum Water Aluminum oxide
Hydrogen
Powdered aluminum burns spontaneously on contact with liquid oxygen. Ahunin
oxide is the sole product of combustion. UJn
The reactivity of aluminum powder is put to use in the formulations of many fir _
~arks, i~ whic~ the metal, when activated, burns to pro~uce a bri_lliant disp~ay of oran:e
light. It is also mcorporated into certain paints and varmshes for its decorative and heat-
reflective features; but consideration must be given to their use, because these coatings
may behave as flammable solids once the paint solvent has evaporated. Aluminum pow-
der is also a component of solid rocket fuels, in which it is mixed with ammonium nitrate
and ammonium perchlorate. The mixture of powdered aluminum and ammonium nitrate
is an explosive called ammonal.
The catastrophe of the German dirigible Hindenburg may have been linked with
the combustion of aluminum powder. The exterior surface of the dirigible consisted. of
a cloth cover impregnated with a doping mixture of aluminum powder and ferric
oxide. The presence of aluminum powder provided a surface having high reflectivity.
The cover was intended to serve an important purpose: The aluminum particles
reflected heat off the vessel and prevented the hydrogen from expanding. The prevail-
ing theory is that the aluminum powder first caught fire at an isolated location, per-
haps triggered by static electricity or lightning. Once initiated, the fire then rapidly
spread across the entire covering, ultimately igniting the reserves of hydrogen. The
resulting inferno consumed the vessel.
In circumstances where the temperature is substantially elevated compared with
the norm, even bulk aluminum acts as a fast-burning fuel. The skin of shuttle aircraft,
for example, must be armored with heat shielding to protect the shuttle when it reen·
ters Earth's atmosphere from outer space, experiencing temperatures in excess of
3000°F (1650°C). If this shielding is pierced in any way, the underlying aluminum
becomes superheated. Aluminum melts at 1220°F (660°C) and vaporizes at 4221°F
(2327°C). At these temperatures, aluminum fires occur when oxygen is available to
support the combustion.
In 2003, the space shuttle Columbia disintegrated on reentry into Earth's atmosphere,
killing the seven astronauts onboard. The shuttle was covered with more than ...
The document summarizes the properties of group 13 (boron group) elements. It discusses their electronic configurations, atomic sizes, ionization energies, electronegativity, and physical and chemical properties. The key points are:
- Group 13 includes boron, aluminum, gallium, indium, and thallium.
- Aluminum is the most abundant metal on Earth and the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
- The elements have an ns2np1 electronic configuration and stable +3 oxidation state that decreases down the group due to the inert pair effect.
- Atomic radii generally increase down the group except for gallium, which is smaller than aluminum due to poor d-orb
The document summarizes properties of various p-block elements including boron, aluminum, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium and the halogens. It describes their occurrence in nature, production, physical and chemical properties, and important industrial uses. Boron is used in glass and ceramics. Aluminum is the most abundant metal and used widely in transportation and packaging due to its properties. Carbon exists in different allotropes like diamond and graphite. Nitrogen and oxygen are important constituents of air and life. Sulfur is obtained from natural deposits and used to make sulfuric acid. The halogens exist as acids and salts.
The document discusses the properties of group 14 elements. It notes that carbon and silicon are non-metals, germanium is a metalloid, and tin and lead are metals. It discusses their electronic configurations, atomic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity, oxidation states, and physical properties. Carbon exhibits allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerenes which have the same chemical composition but different physical properties. Diamond has a high melting point and hardness due to its strong covalent bonds.
Boron (B), atomic number 5, is the first chemical element of Group 13 or Group IIIA in the periodic table has the smallest size and highest electronegativity, the compounds are essential to plant growth and wide industrial application of ancient civilization.
Group 2 elements include beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium, and radium. They are silvery white metals that form ionic bonds and are more reactive than typical metals but less reactive than Group 1 alkali metals. Beryllium has some covalent character in its bonding. The elements were discovered through electrolysis and purification from minerals like beryl and dolomite. They have various industrial applications as structural materials, reducing agents, and in ceramics, though radium is no longer used. Beryllium forms more covalent and complex compounds compared to the other Group 2 metals due to its small size.
Products from rocks (summary of the AQA module)dhmcmillan
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Similar to Group 3 a element of periodic table (20)
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3. Group 3A or called the boron group comprising :
1- Boron (B)
2- Aluminum (Al)
3- Gallium (Ga)
4- Indium (In)
5- Thallium (Tl)
6- Ununtrium (Uut)
The elements in the boron group are characterized by
having three electrons in their outer energy levels
(valence layers).
These elements have also been referred to as earth
metals.
INTRODUCTION OF GROUP 3A
5. The metallic character increase down group 3A .
Boron is metalloid (non-metal) and. Ununtrium has not yet
been confirmed to be a poor metal one or not .
Also they are metals they conduct electricity and heat very
well , but boron need a high
temperature to conduct
electricity .
The elements of group 3A are
relatively reactive at normal
temperature except boron is
reactive at high temperature .
METALLIC CHARACTER
6. The hardness decrease down the group and the
softness increase down.
All Elements of group 3A is soft except Boron
Boron is relatively hard .
Ununtrium is the softest element in boron group but
it’s not natural element so the softest element is
Thallium .
SOFTNESS
7. All the elements in group 3A have a stable isotopes .
Boron , Gallium and Thallium has a two stable isotopes .
Aluminium and Indium are a mono isotopes ( they have a one stable
isotope ) .
All compound of group 3A are toxic but some compounds are toxic for
plants , some only toxic for animals and some toxic for both .
ISOTOPES AND TOXICITY
8. The tri-oxidation state less stable down group 3A ,but the
mono-oxidation state more stable down the group .
fagan's rule: the small size atoms form covalent bonds and
the large size ones form ionic bonds .
Boron has only a tri oxidation state.
Aluminium always trivalent but rarely univalent and unstable .
Gallium the compounds of a monoxidation (+I) is less stable
than the compounds of (+III) ,there’re not pure Ga (+I) and
(+III) .
Indium the compounds of a monoxidation (+I) is less stable
than the compounds of (+III) .
Thallium The compound (+I) more stable than (+III)
compounds .
OXIDATION STATE
9. Boron is a relatively rare element in the Earth's
crust, representing only 0.001% .
Aluminium occurs widely on earth, and indeed is the third
most abundant element in the Earth's crust (8.3%).
Gallium is found in the earth with an abundance of 13 ppm.
Indium is the 61 st most abundant element in the earth's
crust,
thallium is found in moderate amounts throughout the planet.
Ununtrium is never found in nature and therefore is termed a
synthetic element.
ABUNDANCE
11. Boron is strong oxophiles and It’s oxides is very important like
1- Boron sesquioxides ,B2 O3
(sesquioxides mean 1 and 0.5).
Preparation :-
- By heating the element of boron in oxygen
4B+3O2 2B2O3
- By dehydrating the boric acid
2H3BO3 2HBO2 B2O3
Properties :- the unhydride form of ortho boric acid has acidity and
metallic oxides properties :
B2O3+3MgOMg3 (BO3 )2
Acid + strong base salt
And when it reacts with strongly acidic oxide it behaves as a basic
oxide
P2O3+B2O3 2BPO4
REACTION OF BORON WITH OXYGEN
12. Structure :
(BO3-
-3) in boron sesquioxides ( Boric acid B2O3 )
Each boron atom is bonded to three oxygen arranged at the corners
of an equilateral triangle .
REACTION OF BORON WITH OXYGEN
13. Ortho Borates: contains discrete BO3 ions like Mg3(BO3)2
Meta Borates : contains simple unites of BO3 but join in chain
or ring (means has a polymeric structure )
REACTION OF BORON WITH OXYGEN
14. 2- Boric acid:
It’s a very weak acid in aqueous solution and the complex forms with
water is the actual source of protons so it acts as a weak monobasic acid .
The solid of orthoboric acid contains triangular HOH3 units which are
bonded together through hydrogen bond into 2D sheet with hexagonal
symmetry .
Orthoboric acid has in liquid state a plane triangular but when soluble in
water it donates protons and accept (OH-)
B(OH)3 +2H2O B(OH)4 + H3O
REACTION OF BORON WITH OXYGEN
16. ALUMINIUM has a strong affinity for oxygen and the reaction is
strong exothermic.
2AL+3/2O2 AL2O3
The strong affinity for oxygen is used in the extraction of other
metals from their oxides
8AL+3Mn3O4 4Al2O3+9Mn
2Al+Cr2O3 Al2O3 +2Cr
Gallium , like aluminium , forms an amphoteric oxide and
hydroxide .
Thallium and Indium sesquioxides are completely basic where
thallous hydroxide TlOH is a strong base and soluble in water .
Ununtrium is a radioactive element that never react with
oxygen
REACTION OF ALUMINIUM AND OTHER
METALS WITH OXYGEN
17. The boron hydride is called boranes like alkanes there’re
almost 20 boranes fall into series:
BORON WITH HYDROGEN (HYDRIDES )
Aracho - BnHn+6Nido - BnHn+4Closo - BnHn
-2
B4H10 tetraboraneB2H6 diboraneCloso - B6H6
-2
B5H11 petaboraneB5H9 pentaboraneCloso - B12H12
-2
B6H10 Hexaborane
B10H14 decaborane
18. Diborane :
is considered the simplest member of boranes .It decomposes
very slowly at r.t forming higher boranes .
Preparation
1- Mg3B2 + H3PO4 Mixture of boranes B2O3
2- 2BF3 + 6NaH B2H6 + 6NaF
3- 4BCl3+3Li(AlH4) 2 B2H6 + 3 LiAlCl4
Structure
sp3 hybridization
BORON WITH HYDROGEN (HYDRIDES )
19. Reaction
1- by hydrolysis :
B2H6 + 6H2O 2B(0H)3 + 6H2
2- with ammonia :
B2H6 + NH3 B2H6.2NH3 at law temperature (excess of NH3)
B2H6 + NH3 (BN)x at High temperature (excess of NH3)
B2H6 + NH3 (B3N3) at High temperature (excess of
B2H6.2NH3) .
3- with air :
Diborane reacts spontaneously with air ,
often with explosive violence and a green flash .
B2H6 + 3O2 2B(0H)
BORON WITH HYDROGEN (HYDRIDES )
20. The hydride of indium and thallium are very unstable .
The hydride of aluminium and gallium is much more
limited than that of boron .
Like AlH3 exists as a solid but not available , it available as
(AlH3)n .Gallium : (Ga2H6) prepared in 1994 .
Lithium tetrahydroaluminate LiAlH4 and Lithium
tetrahydrogallate LiGaH4 are much more hydridic than [BH4]-
due to the high electronegativity of boron compared with Al
and Ga , and LiAlH4 is widely used as a reducing agent .
OTHER ELEMENTS OF GROUP 3A WITH
HYDROGEN (HYDRIDES )
25. Boron :
- Pure crystalline B is very unreactive except at high
temperature by mixing conc.H2SO4 and conc.HNO3 .
- Impure amorphous ,burns in air to form oxide and
nitride .
Aluminium : Al is stable at air and water due to heavy thin
layer of oxide on surface of metal which protects the metal
further attack .
Gallium and Indium : Ga and In are stable in air and not
attacked by water.
Thallium : Tl is little more active and form superoxide in air
WITH AIR
26. Glass and ceramics
Detergent formulations and bleaching agents
Insecticides
Semiconductors
Magnets
High-hardness and abrasive compounds
Boron carbide
Other super hard boron compounds
Shielding in nuclear reactors
Pharmaceutical and biological applications
Research areas
APPLICATION OF BORON
27. Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in petroleum refining and in the
production of synthetic rubber and polymers. Although it has a
similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very different
applications.
Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine
vessels, bicycles, etc.) as sheet, tube, castings .
Packaging (cans, foil .)
Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire.)
A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball
bats, watches.
Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles.
Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g.
photographic equipment.
Electrical transmission lines for power distribution MKM steel and
Alnico magnets Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999%
Al), used in electronics and CDs.
APPLICATION OF ALUMINIUM
28. Semiconductors
Biomedical applications
Magnesium gallate containing impurities (such as Mn2+), is
beginning to be used in ultraviolet-activated phosphor powder.
As a liquid metal ion source for a focused ion beam
In a classic prank, scientists would fashion gallium spoons
and serve tea to unsuspecting guests. The spoons melt in the
hot tea.
As an additive in glide wax for skiis, and other low friction
surface materials. US 5069803, Sugimura, Kentaro; Shoji
Hasimoto & Takayuki Ono, "Use of a synthetic resin
composition containing gallium particles in the glide
surfacing material of skis and other applications", issued
1995
APPLICATION OF GALLIUM
29. Electronics
Very small amounts used in aluminium alloy sacrificial anodes
(for salt water applications) to prevent passivation of the
aluminium.
To bond gold electrical test leads to superconductors, indium is
used as a conducting adhesive and applied under a microscope
with precision tweezers.
In the form of a wire it is used as a vacuum seal and a thermal
conductor in cryogenics and ultra-high vacuum applications. For
example, in manufacturing gaskets which deform to fill gaps.
Used as a calibration material for Differential scanning
calorimetry.
It is an ingredient in the gallium-indium-tin alloy
Galinstan, which is liquid at room temperature while not being
toxic like mercury.
APPLICATION OF INDIUM
30. High-temperature superconductivity
Medical
Electronics
Optics: Thallium(I) bromide and thallium(I) iodide crystals have
been used as infrared optical materials, because they are harder
than other common infrared optics, and because they have
transmission at significantly longer wavelengths. The trade name
KRS-5 refers to this material. Thallium(I) oxide has been used to
manufacture glasses that have a high index of refraction.
Combined with sulfur or selenium and arsenic, thallium has been
used in the production of high-density glasses that have low
melting points in the range of 125 and 150 °C. These glasses
have room temperature properties that are similar to ordinary
glasses and are durable, insoluble in water and have unique
refractive indices.[
APPLICATION OF THALLIUM
31. It used in cooling the nuclear reactor as it’s better than CO2
and H2O .
It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element (an element
that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature);
the most stable known isotope, ununtrium-286, has a half-life
of 20 seconds.
APPLICATION OF UNUNTRIUM