Gregor Mendel discovered the fundamental principles of genetics through breeding pea plants. He found that traits are determined by alleles, or alternative forms of genes. Dominant alleles will mask recessive alleles in heterozygous individuals. Mendel used Punnett squares and conducted monohybrid and dihybrid crosses to study inheritance patterns, discovering the principles of segregation and independent assortment. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant over time if certain conditions are met.
We could define Mendel´s laws as the basic laws that talks about the inheritance of biological features that every human being has. They were created by Gregor Johann Mendel in 1865. Mendel created three laws: The law of Segregation, the law of Independent Assortment and the law of Dominance.
The rules of Mendel's inheritance: In a cross between pure contrasting traits, the dominant trait will be observed in the phenotype of the organism whilst the recessive trait will be concealed. Only a single gene copy is allocated in a gamete cell and this is carried out in a random manner.
Mendel’s Procedure: (i) Mendel observed one trait at a time. For example, he crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene. (ii) He hybridised plants with alternate forms of a single trait (monohybrid cross). The seeds produced by this cross were grown to develop into plants of Fillial 1 progeny or F 1 -generation
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
We could define Mendel´s laws as the basic laws that talks about the inheritance of biological features that every human being has. They were created by Gregor Johann Mendel in 1865. Mendel created three laws: The law of Segregation, the law of Independent Assortment and the law of Dominance.
The rules of Mendel's inheritance: In a cross between pure contrasting traits, the dominant trait will be observed in the phenotype of the organism whilst the recessive trait will be concealed. Only a single gene copy is allocated in a gamete cell and this is carried out in a random manner.
Mendel’s Procedure: (i) Mendel observed one trait at a time. For example, he crossed tall and dwarf pea plants to study the inheritance of one gene. (ii) He hybridised plants with alternate forms of a single trait (monohybrid cross). The seeds produced by this cross were grown to develop into plants of Fillial 1 progeny or F 1 -generation
MENDELE'S EXPERIMNENT AND TERMINOLOGY, BY MR. DINABANDHU BARAD, MSC TUTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PEDIATRIC, SUM NURSING COLLEGE, SIKSHA 'O' ANUSANDHAN DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Punnett Square. It also talks about the definition, history and the process that are included in the field of Punnett Square.
This Power Point Presentation is designed to explain Mendel's experiment on hybridization and dihybrid cross which considers inheritance of two traits at a time and to know whether they are inherited independently or are influenced by each other and also about Law of Independent assortment
It is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the lesson or topic: Punnett Square. It also talks about the definition, history and the process that are included in the field of Punnett Square.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
2. Genetics
• The study of heredity.
heredity
• Gregor Mendel (1860’s) discovered the
fundamental principles of genetics by breeding
garden peas.
peas
3. Genetics
• Alleles
1. Alternative forms of genes.
2. Units that determine heritable traits.
3. Dominant alleles (TT - tall pea plants)
plants
a. homozygous dominant
4. Recessive alleles (tt - dwarf pea plants)
plants
a. homozygous recessive
5. Heterozygous (Tt - tall pea plants)
plants
5. Genotype
• Arrangement of genes that produces the
phenotype
• Example:
1. tall pea plant
TT = tall (homozygous dominant)
2. dwarf pea plant
tt = dwarf (homozygous recessive)
3. tall pea plant
Tt = tall (heterozygous)
6. Punnett square
• A Punnett square is used to show the
possible combinations of gametes.
gametes
7. Breed the P generation
• tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plants
T T
t
t
8. tall (TT) vs. dwarf (tt) pea plants
T T
Tt produces the
t Tt
F1 generation
t Tt Tt All Tt = tall
(heterozygous tall)
9. Breed the F1 generation
• tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants
T t
T
t
10. tall (Tt) vs. tall (Tt) pea plants
T t
produces the
TT Tt F2 generation
T
1/4 (25%) = TT
Tt tt 1/2 (50%) = Tt
t
1/4 (25%) = tt
1:2:1 genotype
3:1 phenotype
11. Monohybrid Cross
• A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance
of a single trait.
• Mendel’s “principle of segregation”
a. pairs of genes separate during gamete
formation (meiosis).
b. the fusion of gametes at fertilization pairs
genes once again.
12. Homologous Chromosomes
eye color locus eye color locus
B = brown eyes b = blue eyes
This person would
have brown eyes (Bb)
Paternal Maternal
13. Meiosis - eye color
B
B sperm
B
Bb
haploid (n)
b
diploid (2n) b
b
meiosis I meiosis II
14. Monohybrid Cross
• Example:
Example Cross between two heterozygotes
for brown eyes (Bb)
BB = brown eyes
B b male
Bb = brown eyes gametes
bb = blue eyes
B
Bb x Bb
b
female gametes
15. Monohybrid Cross
B b
1/4 = BB - brown eyed
B BB Bb 1/2 = Bb - brown eyed
Bb x Bb 1/4 = bb - blue eyed
b Bb bb
1:2:1 genotype
3:1 phenotype
16. Dihybrid Cross
• A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance
of two traits.
• Mendel’s “principle of independent assortment”
a. each pair of alleles segregates independently
during gamete formation (metaphase I)
b. formula: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes)
17. Independent Assortment
• Question: How many gametes will be produced
for the following allele arrangements?
• Remember: 2n (n = # of heterozygotes)
1. RrYy
2. AaBbCCDd
3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq
18. Answer:
1. RrYy: 2n = 22 = 4 gametes
RY Ry rY ry
2. AaBbCCDd: 2n = 23 = 8 gametes
ABCD ABCd AbCD AbCd
aBCD aBCd abCD abCD
3. MmNnOoPPQQRrssTtQq: 2n = 26 = 64 gametes
19. Dihybrid Cross
• Example: cross between round and yellow
heterozygous pea seeds.
R = round RrYy x RrYy
r = wrinkled
Y = yellow
RY Ry rY ry x RY Ry rY ry
y = green possible gametes produced
21. Dihybrid Cross
RY Ry rY ry
Round/Yellow: 9
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
Round/green: 3
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
wrinkled/Yellow: 3
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy wrinkled/green: 1
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio
22. Test Cross
• A mating between an individual of unknown genotype
and a homozygous recessive individual.
• Example: bbC__ x bbcc
BB = brown eyes
Bb = brown eyes
bC b___
bb = blue eyes
bc
CC = curly hair
Cc = curly hair
cc = straight hair
23. Test Cross
• Possible results:
bC b___
C bC b___
c
bc bbCc bbCc or bc bbCc bbcc
24. Incomplete Dominance
• F1 hybrids have an appearance somewhat in
between the phenotypes of the two parental
varieties.
• Example: snapdragons (flower)
• red (RR) x white (rr)
R R
RR = red flower r
rr = white flower
r
25. Incomplete Dominance
R R
produces the
r Rr Rr
F1 generation
r Rr Rr All Rr = pink
(heterozygous pink)
26. Codominance
• Two alleles are expressed (multiple alleles)
alleles
in heterozygous individuals.
individuals
• Example: blood
1. type A = IAIA or IAi
2. type B = IBIB or IBi
3. type AB = IAIB
4. type O = ii
27. Codominance
• Example: homozygous male B (IBIB)
x
heterozygous female A (IAi)
IB IB
IA I AI B I AI B
1/2 = IAIB
1/2 = IBi
i I Bi IBi
29. Codominance
• Question:
Question If a boy has a blood type O and
his sister has blood type AB,
what are the genotypes and
phenotypes of their parents.
• boy - type O (ii) X girl - type AB (IAIB)
30. Codominance
• Answer:
IA i
I B I AI B Parents:
genotypes = IAi and IBi
phenotypes = A and B
i ii
31. Sex-linked Traits
• Traits (genes) located on the sex
chromosomes
• Example: fruit flies
(red-eyed male) X (white-eyed female)
red white
32. Sex-linked Traits
Sex Chromosomes
fruit fly
eye color
XX chromosome - female Xy chromosome - male
33. Sex-linked Traits
• Example: fruit flies
(red-eyed male) X (white-eyed female)
• Remember: the Y chromosome in males
does not carry traits.
RR = red eyed XR y
Rr = red eyed
rr = white eyed Xr
Xy = male
Xr
XX = female
34. Sex-linked Traits
XR y
Xr XR Xr Xr y
1/2 red eyed and female
1/2 white eyed and male
Xr XR Xr Xr y
35. Population Genetics
• The study of genetic changes in populations.
populations
• The science of microevolutionary changes in
populations.
populations
• Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium:
the principle that shuffling of genes that occurs
during sexual reproduction, by itself, cannot
change the overall genetic makeup of a population.
• Hardy-Wienberg equation: 1 = p2 + 2pq + q2
36. Question:
• How do we get this equation?
Answer: “Square” 1 = p + q
↓
12 = (p + q)2
↓
1 = p2 + 2pq + q2
37. Hardy-Wienberg equation
• Five conditions are required for Hardy-Wienberg
equilibrium.
1. large population
2. isolated population
3. no net mutations
4. random mating
5. no natural selection
38. Important
• Need to remember the following:
p2 = homozygous dominant
2pq = heterozygous
q2 = homozygous recessive
39. Question:
• Iguanas with webbed feet (recessive trait) make
up 4% of the population. What in the population
is heterozygous and homozygous dominant.
dominant
40. Answer:
1. q2 = 4% or .04 q2 = .04 q = .2
2. then use 1 = p + q
1 = p + .2 1 - .2 = p .8 = p
3. for heterozygous use 2pq
2(.8)(.2) = .32 or 32%
4. For homozygous dominant use p2
.82 = .64 or 64%
