FM-Foster - Seeley Discriminator.pptx
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This document discusses the Foster-Seeley phase discriminator, which is a type of frequency discriminator used in FM receivers. It operates by comparing the phase difference between primary and secondary voltages in a transformer tuned to the center frequency. When the input frequency matches the center frequency, the phase difference is 90 degrees and the output is zero. If the input frequency increases or decreases from center, the phase difference changes and a positive or negative output voltage is produced, making it useful for demodulating FM signals. The Foster-Seeley discriminator provides good linearity but requires a transformer and limiter before it.
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Let fmax = 12 kHz. Then 12 kHz = fmin + 1/(R1(C1+32pF)). Using fmin= 8 kHz, this gives R1 = 10 kΩ.
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This document provides an overview of linear and non-linear wave shaping. It discusses topics such as analog and digital signals, pulse definitions, periodic waveforms, linear wave shaping circuits including high pass RC circuits and low pass RC circuits. It also covers non-linear wave shaping including different types of clippers such as unbiased clippers, series positive clippers, and their working mechanisms. The document is intended to introduce fundamental concepts of signal processing.
Project
Here are the key steps to design an LNA:
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2. Choose an optimal value for Jc that minimizes NFmin. This Jc-opt depends on device capacitances, bias voltage, and frequency of operation.
3. Design the input matching network to transform the source impedance (usually 50 ohms) to the optimal impedance looking into the transistor for minimum noise. This involves choosing component values for the matching network.
4. Design the biasing circuitry to provide stable bias point
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18 FM_Demodulators-Foster_Seeley_and_Ratio_Detector.pdf
1. The document describes different types of FM demodulator circuits, including the Foster-Seeley discriminator, phase discriminator, and ratio detector.
2. The Foster-Seeley discriminator uses a balanced slope detector circuit with tuned circuits all tuned to the same frequency for better linearity than a simple slope detector.
3. The ratio detector modifies the Foster-Seeley circuit to incorporate amplitude limiting by reversing one diode and adding a capacitor, which eliminates distortion from amplitude variations in the input signal.
sboa508.pdf
The document discusses limitations on amplifier input common mode range and output swing due to transistor operating characteristics in different input and output stage topologies. It provides examples of how limitations can be addressed through design modifications like level shifting inputs or outputs. Complimentary input stages can provide near rail-to-rail input common mode range, while bipolar and CMOS output stages have limitations related to transistor saturation voltages and resistances that constrain the output swing.
Unit 3
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Bjt+and+jfet+frequency+response
The frequency response of RC high pass circuits is summarized. As frequency decreases below the cutoff frequency f1, the capacitor's reactance increases, reducing the output voltage. The cutoff frequency f1 is calculated as 1/(2πRC). Gain is 0 dB at f1 and drops at -20dB/decade below f1. Circuit analysis equations show output voltage decreases proportional to frequency below f1. The circuit thus passes high frequencies above f1 but blocks lower frequencies.
FM Demodulator
Details: https://electronicsembeddedworld.blogspot.com/2018/06/performance-management-mcq.html
FM demodulation involves changing the frequency variations in a signal into amplitude variations at baseband, e.g. audio. There are several techniques and circuits that can be used each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the transmitter.
There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily...
Introduction to pll
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17 FM_Demodulators-Slope_Detectors.pdf
1) An FM demodulator is an electronic circuit that recovers the original information from a modulated carrier wave by converting frequency variations to amplitude variations using a tuned circuit, and then extracting the information using AM demodulation techniques.
2) Common types of FM demodulators include indirect (slope detector) and direct (foster-seeley, ratio detector) methods. The basic FM demodulator is a slope detector which uses a tuned LC circuit to convert frequency variations to amplitude variations for detection.
3) A balanced slope detector improves on a basic slope detector by using two tuned circuits connected back-to-back to opposite ends of a transformer to provide better linearity but at
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The document describes a voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC32) that provides an output frequency accurately proportional to its input voltage. It has excellent linearity of ±0.01% at 10kHz and ±0.05% at 100kHz. It can operate up to 500kHz and can be configured as either a voltage-to-frequency converter or frequency-to-voltage converter. It is available in plastic DIP, surface mount, and metal packages with commercial, industrial, and military temperature ranges.
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The smart irrigation system represents an innovative approach to optimize water usage in agricultural and landscaping practices. The integration of cutting-edge technologies, including sensors, actuators, and data analysis, empowers this system to provide accurate monitoring and control of irrigation processes by leveraging real-time environmental conditions. The main objective of a smart irrigation system is to optimize water efficiency, minimize expenses, and foster the adoption of sustainable water management methods. This paper conducts a systematic risk assessment by exploring the key components/assets and their functionalities in the smart irrigation system. The crucial role of sensors in gathering data on soil moisture, weather patterns, and plant well-being is emphasized in this system. These sensors enable intelligent decision-making in irrigation scheduling and water distribution, leading to enhanced water efficiency and sustainable water management practices. Actuators enable automated control of irrigation devices, ensuring precise and targeted water delivery to plants. Additionally, the paper addresses the potential threat and vulnerabilities associated with smart irrigation systems. It discusses limitations of the system, such as power constraints and computational capabilities, and calculates the potential security risks. The paper suggests possible risk treatment methods for effective secure system operation. In conclusion, the paper emphasizes the significant benefits of implementing smart irrigation systems, including improved water conservation, increased crop yield, and reduced environmental impact. Additionally, based on the security analysis conducted, the paper recommends the implementation of countermeasures and security approaches to address vulnerabilities and ensure the integrity and reliability of the system. By incorporating these measures, smart irrigation technology can revolutionize water management practices in agriculture, promoting sustainability, resource efficiency, and safeguarding against potential security threats.
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Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of transmitting multiple signals over a single communication channel by dividing the signal into many segments, each having a very short duration of time. These time slots are then allocated to different data streams, allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium efficiently. TDM is widely used in telecommunications and data communication systems.
### How TDM Works
1. **Time Slots Allocation**: The core principle of TDM is to assign distinct time slots to each signal. During each time slot, the respective signal is transmitted, and then the process repeats cyclically. For example, if there are four signals to be transmitted, the TDM cycle will divide time into four slots, each assigned to one signal.
2. **Synchronization**: Synchronization is crucial in TDM systems to ensure that the signals are correctly aligned with their respective time slots. Both the transmitter and receiver must be synchronized to avoid any overlap or loss of data. This synchronization is typically maintained by a clock signal that ensures time slots are accurately aligned.
3. **Frame Structure**: TDM data is organized into frames, where each frame consists of a set of time slots. Each frame is repeated at regular intervals, ensuring continuous transmission of data streams. The frame structure helps in managing the data streams and maintaining the synchronization between the transmitter and receiver.
4. **Multiplexer and Demultiplexer**: At the transmitting end, a multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single composite signal by assigning each signal to a specific time slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the composite signal back into individual signals based on their respective time slots.
### Types of TDM
1. **Synchronous TDM**: In synchronous TDM, time slots are pre-assigned to each signal, regardless of whether the signal has data to transmit or not. This can lead to inefficiencies if some time slots remain empty due to the absence of data.
2. **Asynchronous TDM (or Statistical TDM)**: Asynchronous TDM addresses the inefficiencies of synchronous TDM by allocating time slots dynamically based on the presence of data. Time slots are assigned only when there is data to transmit, which optimizes the use of the communication channel.
### Applications of TDM
- **Telecommunications**: TDM is extensively used in telecommunication systems, such as in T1 and E1 lines, where multiple telephone calls are transmitted over a single line by assigning each call to a specific time slot.
- **Digital Audio and Video Broadcasting**: TDM is used in broadcasting systems to transmit multiple audio or video streams over a single channel, ensuring efficient use of bandwidth.
- **Computer Networks**: TDM is used in network protocols and systems to manage the transmission of data from multiple sources over a single network medium.
### Advantages of TDM
- **Efficient Use of Bandwidth**: TDM all
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- 1. 1 Communication Theory Dr.Arun Chokkalingam Professor FM-Foster - Seeley Discriminator or Phase Discriminator
- 2. FM -Balanced Slope Detector
- 3. Foster - Seeley Discriminator or Center-tuned Discriminator Principle of Phase Discriminator: › The phase shift between primary and secondary voltages of the transformer is a function of frequency › The primary and secondary windings are both tuned to the centre frequency fc › This is desirable because it greatly simplifies alignment, and also because the process yields far better linearity than slope detection.
- 4. Foster - Seeley Discriminator • Exactly 90o out of phase when the input frequency (fin) is fc • Less than 90o out of phase when the input frequency (fin) is higher than fc • More than 90o out of phase when the input frequency (fin) is below fc VD1 = V1 + 0.5 V2 VD2 = V1 - 0.5 V2 V0 = V01 – V02 V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 |
- 5. › Mode-1 › fin = fc = 100MHz › At carrier frequency, VD1 and VD2 are equal hence the net output of the discriminator will be zero. › V0 = V01 – V02 =+5V-5V=0V V0 = V01 – V02 V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | VD1 = V1 + 0.5 V2 VD2 = V1 - 0.5 V2
- 6. › Mode-2 › fin = (fc + Δf):100MHz+75 KHz › As the carrier moves off to one side of the center frequency the balance condition is destroyed, › One diode conducts more than the other. › This results in the voltage across one of the resistors being larger than the other. › When the input frequency increases above carrier frequency (fc) the phase shift between V1 & V2 reduces | VD1 | > | VD2 | hence V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | will be positive. › V0 = V01 – V02 =+8V-3V=+5V V0 = V01 – V02 V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | VD1 = V1 + 0.5 V2 VD2 = V1 - 0.5 V2
- 7. › Mode-3 › fin = (fc - Δf):100MHz-75 KHz › When the input frequency reduces below fc, the phase shift between V1 & V2 increases then | VD2 | > | VD1 | hence V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | will be negative. › V0 = V01 – V02 =+3V-8V=-5V V0 = V01 – V02 V0 = | VD1 | - | VD2 | VD1 = V1 + 0.5 V2 VD2 = V1 - 0.5 V2
- 8. Foster-Seeley detector advantages & disadvantages Advantages : – Offers good level of linearity. – Simple to construct using discrete components. – Provides higher output than the ratio detector – Provides a more linear output, i.e. lower distortion than the ratio detector Disadvantages : – High cost of transformer. – Narrower bandwidth than the ratio detector – The circuit is sensitive to both frequency and amplitude and therefore needs a limiter before it to remove amplitude variations and hence amplitude noise.