Field research

Introduction to qualitative
methodology
 Data in words rather than numbers
 Non-positivistic orientation
 Includes:
 Field research
 Qualitative interviewing
 Historical comparative analysis

Three General Approaches to
Research
APPROACH POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE
USUAL TYPE experiment, historical- field research,
OF RESEARCH survey, comparative interview
cont. anal.
PERSPECTIVE technocratic transcendent transcendent
TYPE OF LOGIC reconstructed logic-in-practice logic-in-practice
PATH linear non-linear non-linear
/cyclical /cyclical

Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
 Context is critical
 In depth, detailed
 Researcher immerses self in data (non-
objective)
 Researcher integrity
 Bias recognized
 Use of grounded theory
 Can detect process and sequence
 Data are interpreted rather than analyzed

Elite Studies
 Special type of field research
 Elites difficult to study, especially with
quantitative methods
 Preferred method is field study
 But special problems
 Gatekeepers
 Need for connections/contacts
 Danger of manipulation
 Difficulty of establishing trust

Field research
 Main types of Field Research are:
 Ethnography
 Ethnomethodology
 Phenomenological Study
 Purposes of field research:
 Data collection
 Theory construction

Ethnography
 A way of building an understanding the
culture and behaviours of a group as a whole.
 Done in a setting or field site where a group
of people share a common culture.
 In sociology, ethnography usually called a
field study
 Uses:
 Participant Observation
 Interviews with Informants
 Examination of documents and cultural artifacts

Ethnography Video
Getting People to Talk: An Ethnograph
(Copyright © 2008 Gabriel Biller & Kristy
Scovel)

Ethnomethodology
 The study of commonsense knowledge
 How do individuals make sense of social
situations and act on their knowledge?
 What are the tacit rules used by members of
a culture?
 Detailed studies of interactions
 Breaching experiments (Garfinkel)
 To uncover hidden norms

Phenomenological Study
 Understanding an experience from a
research participant's point of view
 Interview several participants as to their
perceptions of an experience
 Try to build a picture of the experience
through using a combination of theories,
literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes,
to build a detailed portrait of the experience
 Use of Max Weber’s “verstehen”

Topics For Field Research
 Topics that defy simple quantification.
 Topics where attitudes and behaviours are best
understood within their natural setting.
 Social processes that take place over time.
 The study of meanings, practices, episodes,
encounters, roles, relationships, groups,
organizations, and settlements.

Sampling in field research
 Types of nonprobability sampling methods
commonly used:
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Deviant cases
 Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling

Main Methods Used in Field
Research:
 Field research includes:
 Case study approach
 Participant observation and non-
participant observation
 Intensive interviewing

The Case Study Approach
 To try to develop an understanding of a social
process by studying one case or a small
number of cases in depth
 Can be done using a combination of
intensive interviewing and observation
 Snapshot case studies
 Longitudinal case studies
 Pre-post case studies
 Patchwork case studies
 Comparative case studies.

Observation in Field Research
 Preparing for the field:
 1. Background preparation and literature review
 2. Talking to informants
 3. Gaining entry into the group
 Gatekeepers
 Public vs. private settings

The Various Roles of the Observer
(Raymond Gold’s levels)
 A. Complete participant
 B. Participant-as-observer
 C. Observer-as-participant
 D. Complete observer

Recording observations
 Field journal
 To record empirical data
 To record interpretations
 Guidelines for note taking
 Don't trust your memory
 Take notes in stages
 Record everything

Organizing and Writing Notes
 Rewrite your notes as soon as possible after making
observations
 type or enter into a word-processing program
 Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis.
 a. Chronological file as a master file.
 b. Background files (from literature review, and
documentation of topic's history.)
 c. Biographical files on key subjects in the study.
 d. Bibliographical files of all references related to study.
 e. Analytical files to categorize what you are observing.
 f. Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data.

Using computers in field
research
 some software programs are now available for
field research notes and analysis of data
 Can save time, especially when analyzing data
 See free demos of NVivo and XSight at:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_free-trial-so

Data analysis in field work
 Data analysis in field work is an ongoing
process
 Constant interaction between data collection
and data analysis.
 Look for:
 Similarities, norms, and universals
 Dissimilarities, differences, and deviations from
norms
 Selective perception can be a problem as
you learn more about the topic

Asking Questions: The Field
Research Interview
 Types of qualitative interviews:
 Structured
 Semistructured
 Depth
 Field research most often uses unstructured
interviews
 The use of probes is important in field
research

Conducting interviews
 Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language
and concepts used by the interviewee
 Try to keep the agenda flexible
 Aim to go below the surface of the topic being
discussed
 Explore what people say in detail
 Check you have understood respondents' meanings
 Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of
meanings
 Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions
 Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and
the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex,
and social distance on the interview

Repertoire Techniques
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Matching and mirroring
Indicates rapport
Uncomfortable silence
Create a long silent pause after a question
Echoing
“that happened to me too, “ or “I know what
you mean”
Letting people talk
Avoid unintentional interruptions

Types of questions for
qualitative interviews
 Behaviour or experience
 Opinion or belief
 Feelings
 Knowledge
 Sensory
 Background or demographic

Questions to avoid:
 Affectively worded ones: avoid inducing negative
emotional response. Make questions as neutral as
possible.
 Avoid asking “why?” directly.
 Double-barrelled questions: only 1 issue, topic per
question.
 Overly complex questions. Try to speak at same
level, be clear, know the cultural background of the
person to ensure you don’t offend
 Do some prior study of the group, be culturally
sensitive and respectful of traditions and culture

Recording interviews
 Notes written at the time
 Notes written afterwards
 Audio or videotaping

Researcher as research instrument
 Qualitative interviews require considerable
skill on the part of the interviewer.
 The interviewer needs to notice how
directive he or she is being
 Whether leading questions are being asked
whether cues are picked up or ignored
 Whether interviewees are given enough time
to explain what they mean

Maintaining control of the
interview
 Know what it is you want to find out
 Ask the right questions to get the information
you need
 Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal
feedback
 Good feedback vs. bad feedback
 Avoiding bias

Whyte’s Directiveness Scale
 1. Making encouraging noises
 2. Reflecting on remarks made by the informant
 3. Probing on the last remark by the informant
 4. Probing an idea preceding the last remark by the
informant
 5. Probing an idea expressed earlier in the interview
 6. Introducing a new topic
(1=least directive, 6=most directive)

Focus Group
Group interview or discussion
Facilitated by a skilled moderator
Manageable size
Good for triangulation

The Moderator’s Role
Uses moderator’s guide
Draws out information
Monitors informal group discussion
Encourages free speaking
Uses “aware listening”

The Moderator’s Guide
Systematic and procedural guide
Introduction and introductory activities
Basic rules or guidelines
Question-and-answer
Special activities or exercises
Sensitive issues

Bracketing Your Biases
 First, make a list of your characteristics:
 1. your gender;
 2. your age;
 3. your ethnic or national identification;
 4. your religion or philosophy of life;
 5. your political party or orientation;
 6. your favourite psychological theory.
 Add four more characteristics: words or
phrases that are descriptive of you as an
individual.

Bracketing (cont.)
 1. List ways in which your characteristics
might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
 2. Then write how you might counteract
these biases.
 3. And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases!

Advantages of field research
 Can study nonverbal behaviour
 93% of communication non-verbal
 Words 7%, voice quality 38%, mannerisms 55%
 Flexibility
 Natural environment
 Longitudinal analysis
 Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages of field research
 Not applicable to the investigation of large
social settings
 Making generalizations can be problematic
 Biases, attitudes, and assumptions of the
researcher can be problem
 Selective perception and memory
 Selectivity in data collection
 Presence of the researcher may change the
system or group being studied
 Virtually impossible to replicate the findings

Validity and Reliability
 Validity very high
 Can document complexity of human behaviour
 Detailed descriptions
 Reliability low
 Subjective
 Difficult to replicate
 Low external validity (generalizability)

Field research

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